From Patterson’s 61C 1
COMP-273 Procedures
Kaleem Siddiqi
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°C Functions
°MIPS Instructions for Procedures °The Stack
°Register Conventions
°Another Example
From Patterson’s 61C 2
C functions
int i,j,k,m;
i = mult(j,k); …
m = mult(i,i); …
What information must ;compiler/programmer
keep track of?
/* really dumb mult function */
int mult (int mcand, int mlier){
int product;
product = 0;
while (mlier > 0) {
product = product + mcand;
mlier = mlier -1; }
return product;
What instructions can accomplish this?
From Patterson’s 61C 3
Function Call Bookkeeping
°Registers play a major role in keeping track of information for function calls.
°Register conventions: • Return address
• Arguments
• Return value
• Local variables
° The stack is also used. ° More on this later.
$a0, $a1, $a2, $a3 $v0, $v1
$s0, $s1, … , $s7
From Patterson’s 61C 4
Instruction Support for Functions (1/4)
… sum(a,b);… /* a,b:$s0,$s1 */
}int sum(int x, int y) {
return x+y; }
address 1000 add 1004 add 1008 addi 1012 j 1016 …
2000 sum: 2004 jr
$a0,$s0,$zero # x = a $a1,$s1,$zero # y = b $ra,$zero,1016 #$ra=1016 sum #jump to sum
add $v0,$a0,$a1
$ra # new instruction
From Patterson’s 61C 5
Instruction Support for Functions (2/4)
°Single instruction to jump and save return address: jump and link (jal)
1008 addi $ra,$zero,1016 #$ra=1016
1012 j sum #go to sum
1012 jal sum # $ra=1016,go to sum
° Why have a jal? Make the common case
fast: functions are very common.
From Patterson’s 61C 6
Instruction Support for Functions (3/4)
° Syntax for jal (jump and link) is same as for j (jump):
°jal should really be called laj for
“link and jump”:
• Step 1 (link): Save address of next instruction into $ra (Why next instruction? Why not current one?)
• Step 2 (jump): Jump to the given label
From Patterson’s 61C 7
Instruction Support for Functions (4/4)
° Syntax for jr (jump register): jr register
°Instead of providing a label to jump to, the jr instruction provides a register which contains an address to jump to.
°Only useful if we know exact address to jump to: rarely applicable.
°Very useful for function calls:
•jal stores return address in register ($ra) •jr jumps back to that address
From Patterson’s 61C 8
Nested Procedures (1/2)
int sumSquare(int x, int y) {
return mult(x,x)+ y; }
° Something called sumSquare, now sumSquare is calling mult.
° So there’s a value in $ra that sumSquare wants to jump back to, but this will be overwritten by the call to mult.
° Need to save sumSquare return address before call to mult.
From Patterson’s 61C 9
Nested Procedures (2/2)
°In general, may need to save some other info in addition to $ra.
°When a C program is run, there are 3 important memory areas allocated:
• Static: Variables declared once per program, cease to exist only after execution completes
• Heap: Variables declared dynamically
• Stack: Space to be used by procedure during execution; this is where we can save register values
From Patterson’s 61C 10
C memory Allocation
Space for saved procedure information
stack pointer
From Patterson’s 61C 11
Explicitly created space, e.g., malloc(); C pointers
Variables declared once per program
Using the Stack (1/2)
°So we have a register $sp which always points to the last used space in the stack.
°To use stack, we decrement this pointer by the amount of space we need and then fill it with info.
°So, how do we compile this?
int sumSquare(int x, int y) {
}return mult(x,x)+ y;
From Patterson’s 61C 12
Using the Stack (2/2)
°Compile by hand
sumSquare:
addi $sp,$sp,-8 #space on stack
sw$ra,4($sp) #saveretaddr sw$a1,0($sp) #savey
add $a1,$a0,$zero # mult(x,x) jal mult # call mult
lw$a1,0($sp) #restorey add $v0,$v0,$a1 # mult()+y lw$ra,4($sp) #getretaddr addi $sp,$sp,8 # restore stack jr $ra
From Patterson’s 61C 13
Steps for Making a Procedure Call
1) Save necessary values onto stack. 2) Assign argument(s), if any.
3) jal call
4) Restore values from stack.
From Patterson’s 61C 14
Rules for Procedures
° Called with a jal instruction, returns with a jr $ra
°Accepts up to 4 arguments in $a0, $a1, $a2 and $a3
°Return value is always in $v0 (and if necessary in $v1)
°Must follow register conventions (even in functions that only you will call)!
So what are they?
From Patterson’s 61C 15
MIPS Registers (1/2)
The constant 0 Reserved for Assembler
Return Values Arguments Temporary Saved
More Temporary
$0 $zero $1 $at $2-$3 $v0-$v1 $4-$7 $a0-$a3 $8-$15 $t0-$t7 $16-$23 $s0-$s7 $24-$25 $t8-$t9
From Patterson’s 61C 16
MIPS Registers (2/2)
Used by Kernel Global Pointer
Stack Pointer Frame Pointer Return Address
$26-27 $k0-$k1 $28 $gp
$29 $sp $30 $fp $31 $ra
°In general, feel free to use either the name or the number, but try not to use both within the same piece of code.
°We prefer names, they make code more readable.
From Patterson’s 61C 17
Register Conventions (1/5)
°Caller: the calling function
°Callee: the function being called
°When callee returns from executing, the caller needs to know which
registers may have changed and which are guaranteed to be unchanged.
°Register Conventions: A set of generally accepted rules as to which registers will be unchanged after a procedure call (jal) and which may be changed.
From Patterson’s 61C 18
Register Conventions (2/5)
°$0: No Change. Always 0.
°$v0-$v1: Change. These are expected
to contain new values.
°$a0-$a3: Change. These are volatile argument registers.
°$t0-$t9: Change. That’s why they’re called temporary: any procedure may change them at any time.
From Patterson’s 61C 19
Register Conventions (3/5)
°$s0-$s7: No Change. Very important, that’s why they’re called saved registers. If the callee changes these in any way, it must restore the original values before returning.
°$sp: No Change. The stack pointer must point to the same place before and after the jal call, or else the caller won’t be able to restore values from the stack.
° $ra: Change. The jal call itself will change this register.
From Patterson’s 61C 20
Register Conventions (4/5)
°What do these conventions mean?
• If function A calls function B, then function A must save any temporary registers that it may be using onto the stack before making a jal call.
• Function B must save any S (saved) registers it intends to use before garbling up their values
• Remember: Caller/callee need to save only temporary/saved registers they are using, not all registers.
From Patterson’s 61C 21
Register Conventions (5/5)
°Note that, if the callee is going to use some s registers, it must:
• save those s registers on the stack • use the registers
• restore s registers from the stack •jr $ra
°With the temp registers, the callee doesn’t need to save onto the stack.
°Therefore the caller must save those temp registers that it would like to preserve though the call.
From Patterson’s 61C 22
Other Registers
°$at: may be used by the assembler at any time; unsafe to use
°$k0-$k1: may be used by the kernel at any time; unsafe to use
°$gp: don’t worry about it
°$fp: don’t worry about it
°Note: Feel free to read up on $gp and $fp in Appendix A, but you can write perfectly good MIPS code without them.
From Patterson’s 61C 23
Example: Compile This (1/5)
int i,j,k,m; /* i-m:$s0-$s3 */
i = mult(j,k); … ;
m = mult(i,i); …
int mult (int mcand, int mlier){
int product;
product = 0;
while (mlier > 0) {
product += mcand;
mlier -= 1; }
return product;
From Patterson’s 61C 24
Example: Compile This (2/5)
add $a0,$s1,$0
add $a1,$s2,$0
add $s0,$v0,$0
add $a0,$s0,$0
add $a1,$s0,$0
add $s3,$v0,$0
#arg0=j #arg1=k
# call mult #i=mult()
#arg0=i #arg1=i
# call mult #m=mult()
From Patterson’s 61C 25
Example: Compile This (3/5)
•main function ends with done, not
jr $ra, so there’s no need to save $ra onto stack
• all variables used in main function are saved registers, so there’s no need to save these onto stack
From Patterson’s 61C 26
Example: Compile This (4/5)
add $t0,$0,$0
slt $t1,$0,$a1 beq $t1,$0,Fin add $t0,$t0,$a0 addi $a1,$a1,-1 j Loop
Fin:add $v0,$t0,$0 jr $ra
# mlr > 0?
# prod+=mc
# goto Loop
# $v0=prod
From Patterson’s 61C 27
Example: Compile This (5/5)
• no jal calls are made from mult and we don’t use any saved registers, so we don’t need to save anything onto stack
• temp registers are used for intermediate calculations (could have used s registers, but would have to save the caller’s on the stack.)
• $a1 is modified directly (instead of copying into a temp register) since we are free to change it
• result is put into $v0 before returning
From Patterson’s 61C 28
Things to Remember (1/2)
° Functions are called with jal, and return with jr $ra.
°The stack is your friend: Use it to save anything you need. Just be sure to leave it the way you found it.
°Register Conventions: Each register has a purpose and limits to its usage. Learn these and follow them, even if you’re writing all the code yourself.
From Patterson’s 61C 29
Things to Remember (2/2)
°Instructions we know so far
Arithmetic:
Memory: Decision:
add,addi,sub,addu, addiu, subu, sll
beq, bne, slt, slti,
sltu, sltiu
Unconditional Branches (Jumps):
j, jal, jr
°Registers we know so far • All of them!
From Patterson’s 61C 30
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