程序代写代做代考 algorithm AI Introduction to AI -Search-

Introduction to AI -Search-

Introduction to AI
-Search-

Francesca Toni

Outline

• Solving problems by search

• Basic search algorithms (uninformed/blind search)

• Heuristic-based search algorithms (informed search)

• Search for games (adversarial search )

Recommended reading:
(most of) Chapters 3, 5

Additional reading:
Chapter 3
Section 11.2.2

2

Solving problems by search

•Problem solution can be abstracted as path from
some (start) node to some (goal) node in a suitably
defined directed graph

• Search algorithms to find (optimal) paths

3

Route finding example
On holiday in Romania; today in Arad; flight leaves tomorrow from Bucharest

• Start: Arad

• Goal: Bucharest

• Graph

• Optimal path
• shortest, or
• quickest, or
• cheapest

4

Vacuum world example

The vacuum cleaner needs to remove all dirt from the room

• Start: A

• Goal: no dirt anywhere in A, B

• Graph

• Optimal path
• shortest, or
• quickest, or
• cheapest

5

8-puzzle example

• Graph?• Optimal path?

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Which problems can be solved by (classical) search?

Environment is

• Observable
• Current state known

• Discrete
• From each state finitely many next states (by executing actions)

• Deterministic
• Each action has exactly one outcome (next state)

• Known
• Possible actions and next states for each state

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Search problems – formally

• Initial state (start) e.g. In(Arad)

• Transition model between states (graph)

possibly given by successor function RESULT: States×Actions → States

e.g. RESULT (In(Arad), Go(Zerind))=In(Zerind)

• Goal test (set of goal states)

• explicit e.g. In(Bucharest), or
• implicit e.g. ∀𝑥 ¬Dirt(𝑥)

• Path cost (additive = sum of positive step costs )

e.g. sum of distances, number of actions

Solution=path (sequence of actions) from the initial state to a goal state
Optimal solution= solution with lowest path cost

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Vacuum world example – formally

• Initial state= In(A)∧ 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑡(𝐴) ∧ 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑡(𝐵)

• Goal test= {¬Dirt(𝐴) ∧ ¬𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑡(𝐵)}

• RESULT (In(A)∧ 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑡 𝐴 ∧ 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑡 𝐵 , 𝑆) = In(A)∧ ¬𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑡 𝐴 ∧ 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑡 𝐵 , 𝑒𝑡𝑐

• Step cost=1, path cost=number of actions
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8-puzzle example – formally

• Initial state = Start – e.g. represented by integer locations of tiles

• Transition model between states?

(successor function RESULT: States×Actions → States ?)

• Goal test ={Goal} – e.g. represented by integer locations of tiles

• Path cost= number of actions

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Search algorithms – basic idea

Generate a (search) tree:

1. Initialise the tree with the initial state as root (=frontier)

2. Repeat
i. if the frontier of the tree is empty then return fail

ii. choose and remove a leaf node L from the frontier

iii. if L is a goal state (in the goal test) then return corresponding solution

iv. expand L, adding the resulting nodes to the frontier

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12

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Search algorithms – basic idea with loop checking

Generate a (search) tree:

1. Initialise the tree with the initial state as root

2. Repeat
i. if the frontier of the tree is empty then return fail

ii. choose and remove a leaf node L from the frontier

iii. if L is a goal state (in the goal test) then return corresponding solution

*add L to the “explored set”

iv. expand L, adding the resulting nodes to the frontier

*only if not in the frontier or the “explored set” already

* Additions to avoid loops
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Search algorithms – concretely

Definition of choose

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Uninformed/blind search

• Breadth-first search
• choose (a) shallowest (closest to root) unexpanded node

• Uniform-cost search
• choose unexpanded node with lowest path cost

• Depth-first search
• choose deepest (farthest from the root) unexpanded node.

• Depth-limited search
• depth-first search with given depth limit l (nodes of depth l have no children)

• Iterative deepening search
• depth-limited search of increasing l

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• Breadth-first (choose shallowest)

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• Uniform-cost (choose cheapest) all costs equal

= Breadth-first

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• Uniform-cost (choose cheapest) any costs
Sibiu

Sibiu

R.V.
Faga
ras

80 99

Sibiu

R.V.
Faga
ras

80

177

Pites
ti

99

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• Depth-first (choose deepest)

• Depth-limited (l=1)

• Iterative deepening

Depth-limited (l=0) Depth-limited (l=1) Depth-limited (l=2) …

Uninformed search – Variants

• Backtracking search – variant of depth-first search
• Only one (successor) node generated when expanded

• Each (partially expanded) successor node remembers which node to generate next

• Bi-directional search
• Two simultaneous searches (from start to goal and from goal to start)

• Succeeds when (if) the frontiers of the two searches intersect

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Properties

• completeness—does the algorithm always find a
solution if one exists?
• time complexity—number of nodes

generated/expanded
• space complexity—maximum number of nodes in

memory
•optimality—does the algorithm always find an optimal

(least-cost) solution?

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Properties of uninformed search
(with loop-checking)

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Criterion Breadth-first Uniform-cost Depth-first Backtracking Depth-limited Iterative
deepening

Bidirectional
(breadth-first)

Complete? Yes* Yes*○ Yes† Yes† No Yes* Yes*

Time O(bd) O(bd+1) ● s s s(l) O(bd) O(bd/2)

Space O(bd) O(bd+1) ● O(bm) O(m) O(bl) O(bd) O(bd/2)

Optimal? Yes● Yes No No No Yes● Yes●

* b is finite
● step cost is constant
○ step cost is >0
† s is finite

b–maximum branching factor of the search tree (may be ∞)
d–depth of the optimal (least-cost) solution
m–maximum depth of the state space (may be ∞)
s–overall size of the state space
s(l) –size of the state space till depth l

Properties of uninformed search
(without loop-checking)

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Criterion Breadth-first Uniform-cost Depth-first Backtracking Depth-limited Iterative
deepening

Bi-directional
(breadth-first)

Complete? Yes* Yes*○ No No No Yes* Yes*

Time O(bd) O(bd+1) ● O(bm) O(bm) O(bl) O(bd) O(bd/2)

Space O(bd) O(bd+1) ● O(bm) O(m) O(bl) O(bd) O(bd/2)

Optimal? Yes● Yes No No No Yes● Yes●

* b is finite
● step cost is constant
○ step cost is >0

b–maximum branching factor of the search tree (may be ∞)
d–depth of the optimal (least-cost) solution
m–maximum depth of the state space (may be ∞)

Informed (heuristic-based) search

Use a cost estimate (of optimal path to goal) to

choose node with the least-estimated path cost

• Greedy-best-first search
• cost estimate=heuristic function(node to goal)

• A* search
• cost estimate=actual cost(to node)+heuristic function(node-to-goal)

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Heuristic function: route finding example

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Heuristic function=

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• Greedy-best-first (choose node with lowest value of heuristic function)

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• A* (choose node with lowest value of actual cost+heuristic function)

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Properties of heuristic functions
For 𝑛 any node, let

𝑔(𝑛,𝑚) be the actual cost of reaching node 𝑚 from 𝑛

ℎ 𝑛 be the heuristic function applied to 𝑛 (assume ℎ 𝑛 ≥ 0 — so that ℎ 𝑔𝑜𝑎𝑙 = 0)

• Admissible: it never overestimates the actual cost (to goal) – e.g. straight-line distance

ℎ 𝑛 ≤ 𝑔(𝑛,𝑚𝑔𝑜𝑎𝑙) for 𝑚𝑔𝑜𝑎𝑙 the cheapest goal reachable from 𝑛

• Consistent/Monotonic: it never overestimates the actual cost to any successor
node+the heuristic function applied to that node – e.g. straight-line distance

ℎ 𝑛 ≤ 𝑔 𝑛, 𝑛′ + ℎ(𝑛′) for 𝑛′ any successor of 𝑛

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Consistent/Monotonic → Admissible

Properties of informed search
(with or without loop-checking)

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Criterion Greedy (with) Greedy (without) A* (with) A* (without)

Complete? Yes† No Yes*○ Yes*○

Optimal? No No Yes ◊ Yes ‡

† s is finite
* b is finite
○ step cost is >0
◊ h consistent/monotonic
‡ h admissible

s–overall size of the state space
b–maximum branching factor of the search tree (may be ∞)
m–maximum depth of the state space (may be ∞)
h–heuristic function

A* is optimally efficient (no other optimal search algorithm is
guaranteed to expand fewer nodes) but it often runs out of space

• Greedy best-first
search not
optimal:

Path via Sibiu-
Fagaras is (32 km)
longer than path
through RV-Pitesti

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• Greedy best-first search without loop checking is not complete:
Iasi → Neamt → Iasi → Neamt →…

How to identify admissible/consistent
heuristics?

• Identify a relaxed version of the search problem (with a
larger graph – with more edges)

• Use cost of optimal solutions for the relaxed problem as
(admissible/consistent) heuristics for the original search
problem

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8-puzzle example – relaxed problems

Relaxed problems:

1. A tile can move from A to B if A is horizontally/vertically adjacent to B

2. A tile can move from A to B if B is blank

3. A tile can move from (any) A to (any) B

Heuristics:

1. ℎ 𝑛 =Manhattan distance (sum of the distances of tiles as in 𝑛 from their goal positions)
2. ℎ 𝑛 = number of switches (blank-non-blank tile) to obtain goal from 𝑛
3. ℎ 𝑛 = number of misplaced tiles in 𝑛 wrt the goal

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A tile can move from square A to square B if
• A is horizontally/vertically adjacent to B, and
• B is blank

Heuristic search – today (example-non-examinable)

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Omitted

• Local search
• Genetic algorithms

• Simulated annealing

• Non-deterministic , partially observable or unknown environments

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Adversarial search

•Competitive environment
• opponents with conflicting goals

• “Unpredictable” opponent
• solution is a strategy (=specifying a move for every possible

opponent’s move/sequence of moves)

•Hard to solve, time limits
• must approximate

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Types of games

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Adversarial search problems – formally
Two-player, zero-sum (constant-sum) games

• s0 : initial state

• PLAYER(s): determines which player (of two) moves in a state

• ACTIONS(s): returns the set of legal moves in a state

• RESULT(s,a): returns the state resulting from a move in a state

• TERMINAL(s): is true if the game has ended, false otherwise.

• UTILITY(s,p): returns 1 (win), -1 (lose), 0(draw)

or 1 (win), 0 (lose), 1/2 (draw)

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Example of two-player, zero-sum game: tic-tac-toe

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s0

PLAYERS

Perfect play for deterministic, perfect-info games

•Minimax strategy

•α-β pruning

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MINIMAX(𝑠) – best payoff against best play

for ¬TERMINAL(𝑠):
• if PLAYER(𝑠)=MAX: return maxactions 𝑎 MINIMAX(RESULT(𝑠,𝑎))
• if PLAYER(𝑠)=MIN: return minactions 𝑎 MINIMAX(RESULT(𝑠,𝑎))

for TERMINAL(𝑠):
• return UTILITY(𝑠)

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e.g. two-ply game

UTILITY (for MAX)

Properties of minimax

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* If search tree finite
b–maximum branching factor of the search tree (may be ∞)
m–maximum depth of the state space (may be ∞)

Criterion minimax

Complete? Yes*

Time O(bm)

Space O(bm)

Optimal? Yes

For chess, b ≈ 35, m ≈100 for “reasonable” games: not feasible

α-β pruning
• α minimum value that MAX is guaranteed to achieve so far (in some state)

• β maximum value that MAX is guaranteed to achieve so far (in some state)

Determine for initial state/node 𝑠: max-value(𝑠,-∞,+∞) where

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max-value(𝑠,α,β):
• if TERMINAL(𝑠) then

return UTILITY(𝑠)
• else, starting from v= -∞,
• for each action a:

• let v=max(v,min-value(RESULT(s,a),α,β))
• If v≥ β then return v
• else let α=max(α,v)

return v

min-value(𝑠,α,β):

min-value
… +∞

…min(v,max-value(RESULT(s,a),α,β))
If v≤α then return v
else let β =min(β,v)

α-β pruning

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[α,β]
2≤ 𝟑

Properties of α-β pruning

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* If search tree finite
□ if successors are examined best-first

b–maximum branching factor of the search tree (may be ∞)
m–maximum depth of the state space (may be ∞)

Criterion minimax

Complete? Yes*

Time O(bm/2) □

Space O(bm)

Optimal? Yes

For chess, b ≈ 35, m ≈100 for “reasonable” games: still slow

Omitted
Resource limits:

• Cutoff-Test instead of TERMINAL
• Evaluation instead of UTILITY

• for chess weighted sum of features (e.g. number of white
queens-number of black queens….)

Other types of games

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Search&Games – today (example – non-examinable)

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Search – summary

• Formulation of search problems

• Uninformed search algorithms: breadth-first, uniform-cost, depth-
first, limited-depth, iterative deepening, backtracking, bidirectional

• Informed (heuristic-based) search algorithms: greedy-best-first, A*,
admissible and consistent/monotonic heuristic functions

• Adversarial search: minimax, α-β pruning

• Properties of search algorithms: completeness, optimality, time and
space complexity

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