程序代写代做代考 Consumers

Consumers

Microeconomic Theory -1- Uncertainty

Choice under uncertainty

Part 1

1. Introduction to choice under uncertainty 2

2. Risk aversion 15

3. Acceptable gambles 19

Part 2

4. Measures of risk aversion 24

5. Insurance 30

6. Efficient risk sharing 35

7. Portfolio choice 47

57 slides

Microeconomic Theory -2- Uncertainty

1. Introduction to choice under uncertainty (two states)

Let X be a set of possible outcomes (“states of the world”).

An element of X might be a consumption vector, health status, inches of rainfall etc.

Initially, simply think of each element of X as a consumption bundle. Let x be the most preferred

element of X and let x be the least preferred element.

Microeconomic Theory -3- Uncertainty

1. Introduction to choice under uncertainty (two states)

Let X be a set of possible outcomes (“states of the world”).

An element of X might be a consumption vector, health status, inches of rainfall etc.

Initially, simply think of each element of X as a consumption bundle. Let x be the most preferred

element of X and let x be the least preferred element.

Consumption prospects

Suppose that there are only two states of the world. 1 2{ , }X x x Let 1 be the probability that the

state is 1x so that 2 11   is the probability that the state is 2x .

We write this “consumption prospect” as follows:

1 2 1 2( ; ) ( , ; , )x x x  

Microeconomic Theory -4- Uncertainty

1. Introduction to choice under uncertainty (two states)

Let X be a set of possible outcomes (“states of the world”).

An element of X might be a consumption vector, health status, inches of rainfall etc.

Initially, simply think of each element of X as a consumption bundle. Let x be the most preferred

element of X and let x be the least preferred element.

Consumption prospects

Suppose that there are only two states of the world. 1 2{ , }X x x Let 1 be the probability that the

state is 1x so that 2 11   is the probability that the state is 2x .

We write this “consumption prospect” as follows:

1 2 1 2( ; ) ( , ; , )x x x  

If we make the usual assumptions about preferences, but now on prospects, it follows that

preferences over prospects can be represented by a continuous utility function

1 2 1 2( , , , )U x x   .

Microeconomic Theory -5- Uncertainty

Prospect or “Lottery”

1 2 1( , ,…., ; ,…, )S SL x x x  

(outcomes; probabilities)

Consider two prospects or “lotteries”, AL and BL

1 2 1( , ,…., ; ,…, )
A A

A S SL x x x   1 2 1( , ,…., ; ,…, )
B B

B S SL c c c  

Independence Axiom (axiom of complex gambles)

Suppose that a consumer is indifferent between these two prospects (we write A BL L ).

Then for any probabilities 1 and 2 summing to 1 and any other lottery CL

1 2 1 2( , ; , ) ( , ; , )A C B CL L L L   

Tree representation

Microeconomic Theory -6- Uncertainty

This axiom can be generalized as follows:

Suppose that a consumer is indifferent between the prospects AL and BL

and is also indifferent between the two prospects CL and DL ,

i.e. A BL L and C DL L

Then for any probabilities 1 and 2 summing to 1,

1 2 1 2( , ; , ) ( , ; , )A C B DL L L L   

Tree representation

We wish to show that if A BL L and C DL L then

Microeconomic Theory -7- Uncertainty

Proof: A BL L and C DL L

Step 1: By the Independence Axiom, since A BL L

Microeconomic Theory -8- Uncertainty

Proof: A BL L and C DL L

Step 1: By the Independence Axiom, since A BL L

Step 2: By the Independence Axiom, since C DL L

Microeconomic Theory -9- Uncertainty

Expected utility

Consider some very good outcome x and very bad outcome x and outcomes 1x and 2x satisfying

1x x x and 2x x x

Reference lottery

( ) ( , , ,1 )RL v w w v v  so v is the probability of the very good outcome.

1(0) (1)R RL x L and 2(0) (1)R RL x L

Then for some probabilities 1( )v x and 2( )v x

1 1 1 1( ( )) ( , ; ( ),1 ( ))Rx L v x x x v x v x  and 2 2 2 2( ( )) ( , ; ( ),1 ( ))Rx L v x x x v x v x 

Then by the independence axiom

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2( , ; , ) ( ( ( )), ( ( )); , )R Rx x L v x L v x   

Definition: Expectation of ( )v x

1 1 2 2[ ( )] ( ) ( )v x v x v x  

Microeconomic Theory -10- Uncertainty

Note that in the big tree there are only two

outcomes, x and x . The probability of the

very good outcome is 1 1 2 2( ) ( ) [ ( )]v x v x v x  

The probability of the very bad outcome is 1 [ ( )]v x . Therefore

Microeconomic Theory -11- Uncertainty

We showed that

i.e.

1 2 1 2( , ; , ) ( , ; [ ],1 [ ])x x x x v v  

Thus the expected win probability in the reference lottery is a representation of preferences over

prospects.

Microeconomic Theory -12- Uncertainty

An example:

A consumer with wealth ŵ is offered a “fair gamble” . With probability 12 his wealth will be ŵ x

and with probability 1
2

his wealth will be ŵ x . If he rejects the gamble his wealth remains ŵ. Note

that this is equivalent to a prospect with 0x

In prospect notation the two alternatives are

1 1
1 2 1 2 2 2

ˆ ˆ( , ; , ) ( , ; , )w w w w  

and

1 1
1 2 1 2 2 2

ˆ ˆ( , ; , ) ( , ; , )w w w x w x     .

These are depicted in the figure assuming 0x .

Expected utility

1 2 1 2 1 1 2 2( , , , ) [ ] ( ) ( )U w w v v w v w     

Class discussion

MRS if ( )v w is a concave function

set of

acceptable

gambles

Microeconomic Theory -13- Uncertainty

Convex preferences

The two prospects are depicted opposite.

The level set for 1 11 2 2 2( , ; , )U w w through the riskless

prospect N is depicted.

Note that the superlevel set

1 1 1 1
1 2 2 2 2 2

ˆ ˆ( , ; , ) ( , ; , )U w w U w w

is a convex set.

set of

acceptable

gambles

Microeconomic Theory -14- Uncertainty

Convex preferences

The two prospects are depicted opposite.

The level set for 1 11 2 2 2( , ; , )U w w through the riskless

prospect N is depicted.

Note that the superlevel set

1 1 1 1
1 2 2 2 2 2

ˆ ˆ( , ; , ) ( , ; , )U w w U w w

is a convex set.

This is the set of acceptable gambles for the consumer.

As depicted the consumer strictly prefers the riskless prospect N to the risky prospect R .

Most individuals, when offered such a gamble (say over $5) will not take this gamble.

set of

acceptable

gambles

Microeconomic Theory -15- Uncertainty

2. Risk aversion

Class Discussion: Which alternative would you choose?

N : 1 2 1 2 1 2ˆ ˆ( , ; , ) ( , ; , )w w w w    R: 1 2 1 2 1 2ˆ ˆ( , ; , ) ( , ; , )w w w x w x      where 1
50

100
 

What if the gamble were “favorable” rather than “fair”

R: 1 2 1 2 1 2ˆ ˆ( , ; , ) ( , ; , )w w w x w x      where (i) 1
55

100
  (ii) 1

100
  (iii) 1

100
 

Microeconomic Theory -16- Uncertainty

Class Discussion: Which alternative would you choose?

N : 1 2 1 2 1 2ˆ ˆ( , ; , ) ( , ; , )w w w w    R: 1 2 1 2 1 2ˆ ˆ( , ; , ) ( , ; , )w w w x w x      where 1
50

100
 

What if the gamble were “favorable” rather than “fair”

R: 1 2 1 2 1 2ˆ ˆ( , ; , ) ( , ; , )w w w x w x      where (i) 1
55

100
  (ii) 1

100
  (iii) 1

100
 

What is the smallest integer n such that you would gamble if 1
100

n
  ?

Preference elicitation

In an attempt to elicit your preferences write down your number n (and your first name) on a piece

of paper. The two participants with the lowest number n will be given the riskless opportunity.

Let the three lowest integers be 1 2 3, ,n n n . The win probability will not be
1

100

n
or 2

100

n
. Both will get

the higher win probability 3
100

n
.

Microeconomic Theory -17- Uncertainty

2. Risk preferences

1 1 2 2( , ) ( ) ( )U x v x v x    or ( , ) [ ]U x v 

Risk preferring consumer

Consider the two wealth levels 1x and 2 1x x .

1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2( ) ( ) ( )v x x v x v x     

If ( )v x is convex, then the slope of ( )v x

is strictly increasing as shown in the top figure.

Consumer prefers risk

Microeconomic Theory -18- Uncertainty

1 1 2 2( , ) ( ) ( )U x v x v x   

Risk averse consumer

1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2( ) ( ) ( )v x x v x v x      .

In the lower figure ( )u x is strictly concave so that

1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]v x x v x v x v       .

In practice consumers exhibit aversion to such a risk.

Thus we will (almost) always assume that the

expected utility function ( )v x is a strictly increasing

strictly concave function.

Class Discussion:

If consumers are risk averse why do they go to Las Vegas?

Risk averse consumer

Consumer prefers risk

Microeconomic Theory -19- Uncertainty

3. Acceptable gambles: Improving the odds to make the gamble just acceptable.

New risky alternative: 1 11 2 1 2 2 2ˆ ˆ( , ; , ) ( , ; , )w w w x w x        .

Choose  so that the consumer is indifferent between gambling and not gambling.

****

Microeconomic Theory -20- Uncertainty

3. Acceptable gamble: Improving the odds to make the gamble just acceptable.

New risky alternative: 1 11 2 1 2 2 2ˆ ˆ( , ; , ) ( , ; , )w w w x w x        .

Choose  so that the consumer is indifferent between gambling and not gambling.

For small x we can use the quadratic approximation of the utility function

Quadratic approximation of his utility

As long as x is small we can approximate his utility

as a quadratic. Suppose ( ) ln( )u w x w x   .

Define ( ) ln( )u x w x  .

Then (i) (0) lnu w (ii)
1

(0)u
w

  and (iii)
2

1
(0)u

w
  

Consider the quadratic function

2 2

1 1
( ) ln ( ) ( )q x w x x

w w
   . (3.1)

If you check you will find that ( )u x and ( )q x have the same, value, first derivative and second

derivative at 0x . We then use this quadratic approximation to compute the gambler’s

(approximated) expected gain.

Microeconomic Theory -21- Uncertainty

With probability 1
2

 his payoff is ( )q x and with probability 12  his payoff is ( )q x . Therefore his

expected payoff is

1 1
2 2

[ ( )] ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )q x q x q x     

Substituting from (3.1)

21 1

2 2 2

1 1
[ ( )] ( )[ln ( ) ( )q x w x x

w w
   

21 1

2 2 2

1 1
( )[ln ( )( ) ( )( )w x x

w w
      .

Microeconomic Theory -22- Uncertainty

With probability 1
2

 his payoff is ( )q x and with probability 12  his payoff is ( )q x . Therefore his

expected payoff is

1 1
2 2

[ ( )] ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )q x q x q x     

Substituting from (3.1)

21 1

2 2 2

1 1
[ ( )] ( )[ln ( ) ( )q x w x x

w w
   

21 1

2 2 2

1 1
( )[ln ( )( ) ( )( )w x x

w w
      .

Collecting terms,

2 2

1 1
[ ( )] ln 2 ( ) ( )q x w x x

w w
   .

If the gambler rejects the opportunity his utility is lnw . Thus his expected gain is

21 1

2 42

1 1 2 1
[ ( )] ln 2 ( ) ( ) [ ( ) ]

x
q x w x x x

w w w w
      .

Thus the gambler should take the small gamble if and only if 1
4

1
( )x
w

  .

Microeconomic Theory -23- Uncertainty

The general case: quadratic approximation of his utility

21
2

ˆ ˆ ˆ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )q x v w v w x v w x   

Class Exercise: Confirm that the value and the first two derivatives of ˆ( ) ( )u x v w x  and ( )q x are

equal at 0x .

The expected value utility of the risky alternative is

1 1
2 2

ˆ[ ( )] [ ( )] ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )u w x q x q x q x       

Microeconomic Theory -24- Uncertainty

The general case: quadratic approximation of his utility

21
2

ˆ ˆ ˆ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )q x v w v w x v w x   

Class Exercise: Confirm that the value and the first two derivatives of ˆ( )v w x and ( )q x are equal at

0x .

The expected value utility of the risky alternative is

1 1
2 2

ˆ[ ( )] [ ( )] ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )u w x q x q x q x       

21 1

2 2
ˆ ˆ ˆ( )[ ( ) ( ) ( )v w v w x v w x     

21 1

2 2
ˆ ˆ ˆ( )[ ( ) ( )( ) ( )( )v w v w x v w x        .

Collecting terms,

2
ˆ ˆ ˆ[ ( )] ( ) 2 ( ) ( )q x v w v w x v w x     .

Microeconomic Theory -25- Uncertainty

The general case: quadratic approximation of his utility

21
2

ˆ ˆ ˆ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )q x v w v w x v w x   

Class Exercise: Confirm that the value and the first two derivatives of ˆ( )v w x and ( )q x are equal at

0x .

The expected value utility of the risky alternative is

1 1
2 2

ˆ[ ( )] [ ( )] ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )u w x q x q x q x       

21 1

2 2
ˆ ˆ ˆ( )[ ( ) ( ) ( )v w v w x v w x     

21 1

2 2
ˆ ˆ ˆ( )[ ( ) ( )( ) ( )( )v w v w x v w x        .

Collecting terms,

2
ˆ ˆ ˆ[ ( )] ( ) 2 ( ) ( )q x v w v w x v w x     .

The gain in expected utility is therefore

2
ˆ ˆ ˆ[ ( )] ( ) 2 ( ) ( )q x v w v w x v w x    

1
4

ˆ( )
ˆ2 ( ) [ ( ) ]

ˆ( )

v w
v w x x

v w



  



Thus the probability of the good outcome must be increased by 1
4

ˆ( )
( )

ˆ( )

v w
x

v w



 


.

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