Phrases & Clauses
Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
Phrases & Clauses
LIN102H1F – Lecture 4
July 15th, 2021
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
Word structure (morphology)
Whether a group of morphemes form a unit or not
⇒ whether the unit is found as a (real) word or not
V
N
de- N
human
V
-ize
OR
V
de- V
N
human
V
-ize
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
Sentence structure (syntax)
Whether a group of words form a unit or not
⇒ constituency tests
I In the supplementary video, I discussed 4 tests
I Substitution: can you replace the string with a single word?
I Ellipsis: can you remove the string without affecting the meaning?
I Coordination: can you link the string with another via and/but?
I Movement: can you move the string to another position of the sentence?
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
I The girl in the red coat will put a picture of Bill on your desk before tomorrow.
I Substitution:
• She will put a picture of Bill …
• *She the red coat will put a picture of Bill…
I Ellipsis:
• Yes, but this girl in the read coat will put a picture of Bill on your desk before
tomorrow.
• *Yes, but this girl in the red coat will put a picture of Bill on your desk before
tomorrow.
I Coordination:
• Matilda [went to the store] and [bought a tomato]
• *Matilda [went to the store] and [respectively]
I Movement:
• The picture of Bill, this girl in the red coat will…
• *This your, girl in the red coat will…
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
Sentence structure (syntax)
Whether a group of words form a unit or not
⇒ constituency tests
(1) a. This girl in the red coat will put a picture of Bill on your desk before
tomorrow.
b. She will put a picture of Bill on your desk before tomorrow.
c. This one will put a picture of Bill on your desk before tomorrow.
Substitution test
[This girl in the red coat] and [girl in the red coat] are both constituents
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
A constituent inside another constituent
A hierarchical representation is used to capture the sentence structure
+ a hierarchical organization of units that are bigger than individual words
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
Phrase structure
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
I Words combine to form larger units known as phrases
I Distributional properties of phrases seem to be determined by category
I Nouns can take possessive ’s morphology
I Nouns can be the subject of a sentence (found to the left of V)
(2) a. Elizabeth’s hat
b. the queen’s hat
c. the queen of England’s hat
d. a queen you’ve never heard of’s hat
(3) a. Elizabeth waved
b. the queen waved
c. the queen of England waved
d. a queen you’ve heard of waved
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
I The identity of a phrase is dependent on one of its subparts
(4) a. green leaves, the student, a single interesting object
b. went to the store, finished homework quickly, spoke quickly
c. on the desk, under the chair, to the store
Head
As in morphology, a head in a phrase determines its category
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
NP
N
box
NP
N
box
PP
P
of
DP
chocolates
VP
V
eat
VP
V
eat
DP
D
the
NP
dinner
+The head of a phrase (minimal category) projects a phrase-level node
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
Head
Every phrase has a head → the head of a phrase is mandatory
(5) a. box
b. big box
c. box of chocolates
d. big box of chocolates
e. *big of chocolates
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
I A phrase may consist solely of a head
NP
N
box
VP
V
run
AP
A
big
AdvP
Adv
calmly
PP
P
through
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
I A phrase may also consist of a head plus other constituents
I The head of a phrase also determines which other constituents the phrase can
contain
(6) a. The kids [ate]
b. The kids [ate the cookies]
c. *The kids [devoured]
d. The kids [devoured the cookies]
e. The kids [watched the movie for 2 hours]
f. *The kids [watched the movie in 2 hours]
g. *The kids [finished the movie for 2 hours]
h. The kids [finished the movie in 2 hours]
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
I A phrase may…
I select and require a specific constituent (*devour vs. devour the cookies)
I be modified by another constituent (run vs. run quickly)
I Syntactic structure reflects this difference via different rules
Complementation
XP → X (ZP)
XP
X (ZP)
Adjunction
XP → XP YP
XP
XP YP
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
Complementation
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
I Complements are phrases that are c-selected by heads
I are needed to complete the meaning or grammatical function of the head (i.e., core
and obligatory component of a phrase structure)
I are introduced in the tree as a sister of the head
(7) a. Franny devoured [the cookie]
b. *Franny deboured [the]
c. *Franny devoured
Complementation
XP → X (ZP)
XP
X (ZP)
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
I C-selection in syntax ≈ c-selection in morphology
I the information must be part of a lexical entry
I C-selection in syntax 6= c-selection in morphology
I the complement is an XP (not a simple category)
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
VP
V
devoured
DP
D
the
NP
N
cookie
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
I Constituency tests: A complement always behaves as though it is inside the XP,
not outside of it
(8) Ellipsis test
a. Franny will [VP devour the cookie]
b. … and Hassan will [VP devour the cookie]
c. *… and Hassan will [VP devour the cookie]
(9) Movement (VP-preposing) test
a. Franny knew Hassan would [VP devour the cookie] and [VP devour the
cookie] he did
b. *Franny knew Hassan would [VP devour the cookie] and devour he did the
cookie
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
(10) Verbs
a. None:
Franny [ran]
Franny [sneezed]
b. 1 DP:
Franny [devoured the cookie]
Franny [rode the bus]
c. 2 DPs:
Franny[gave [Hassan][the cookie]]
Franny[kicked [Hassan][the ball]
d. 1 DP and 1PP:
Franny [gave [the cookie][to Hassan]]
Franny [kicked [the ball][to Hassan]]
e. Clauses (?P):
Hassan [said that Franny sneezed]
Hassan [said that Franny devoured the cookie]
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
I Heads vary significantly with respect to their requirements (ex. not all Vs select
complements in the same manner)
I information on these ‘subcategories’ must be included in lexical entries
+ subcategorization frames
form bound/free category c-selection lex.restr. meaning
devour free V[ DP] DP DEVOUR
sneeze free V SNEEZE
give free V[ DP DP] DP DP GIVE
give free V[ DP PP] DP PP GIVE
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
(11) Nouns
a. PPs:
student of linguistics, box of chocolates
b. Clauses (?Ps):
claim that the earth is flat
c. None:
+in many cases nouns don’t have any complements (this is the norm)
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
(12) Adjectives
a. None:
+no complement is the norm
b. PPs:
afraid of the dark, proud of myself
c. Clauses (?Ps):
afraid that I will my bus
proud that I finished the project on time
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
(13) Determiners
a. NPs:
the cookie, my cookie
b. None:
she, they, John (pronouns, proper names)
DP
D
she
DP
D
John
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
I Because a determiner cannot occur on its own (unless it is a pronoun or proper
name), in this class we assume that a determiner takes a NP as its complement
DP
D
the
NP
N
student
DP
D
an
NP
N
orange
DP
D
∅
NP
N
students
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
Adjunction
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
I Phrases can be modified by other phrases.
I A modifier optionally enriches the description of the head (via a combinatorial
mechanism called ‘adjunction’)
(14) a. run quickly
b. quickly run
c. eat with a spoon
d. watch for an hour (VPs)
(15) a. big box
b. girl on a bicycle
c. student with a big bag of books
d. people who are kind to strangers (NPs)
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
I Adjuncts may behave both as though they are outside the XP they modify and
inside of it (constituency tests)
(16) a. Hassan bought that [big [box of chocolates]]
b. Hassan bought that [big [one]]
c. Hassan bought that [one] (substitution test)
I Compare with…
(17) Ellipsis test
a. Franny will [VP devour the cookie]
b. … and Hassan will [VP devour the cookie]
c. *… and Hassan will [VP devour the cookie]
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
+ We model adjunction by ‘adjoining’ the modifier as a sister to the XP node
I we label the new highest node as XP
I two potential sites for XP-substitution
I a modifier never affects the category of the phrase it attaches to
Adjunction
XP → XP YP
XP
XP YP
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
NP
AP
A
big
NP
N
box
PP
of chocolates
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
(18) a. Hare [[run races] quickly ]
b. … and Tortoises [ [do so] quickly]
c. … and Tortoises [do so] too (Substitution test)
VP
VP
V
run
NP
N
races
AdvP
Adv
quickly
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
(19) Noun Phrases (NPs):
a. Adjective Phrases (APs):
big box
b. Prepositions Phrases (PPs):
girl on a bicycle, student with a big bag of books
c. Clauses (?Ps):
people who are kind to strangers
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
(20) Verb Phrases (VPs):
a. Adverb Phrases (AdvPs):
run qucikly, qucikly run
b. Prepositions Phrases (PPs):
eat on a bicycle, watch for an hour
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
(21) Adjective Phrases (APs):
a. Adjective Phrases (APs):
deep red
b. Adverb Phrases (AdvPs):
mostly red, very red
(22) Adverb Phrases (AdvPs):
a. Adverb Phrases (AdvPs):
very quickly
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
Rule of modification
A modifier attaches to the phrase it is understood as modifying
(23) Franny ate the cookie on the floor.
#1: where the eating happened
#2: where the cookie is (which cookie)
VP
VP
V
ate
DP
the cookie
PP
on the floor
VP
V
ate
DP
Det
the
NP
NP
cookie
PP
on the floor
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
(24) Julia [VP met the man on the bus]
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
VP
VP
V
met
DP
D
the
NP
N
man
PP
on the bus
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
VP
V
met
DP
D
the
NP
NP
N
man
PP
on the bus
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
Complementation
XP → X (ZP)
XP
X (ZP)
Adjunction
XP → XP YP
XP
XP YP
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
Clausal structure
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
I A clause…
I is the biggest kind of phrase
I can be broken down into two major components: subject and predicate
I can be introduced recursively (i.e., can appear inside other clauses) → the notion of
‘subordination’
(25) a. Hassan [VP said that Franny sneezed]
b. Hassan [VP said that Franny devoured the cookie]
c. That Franny devoured the cookie [VP upset Hassan]
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
I already know that Reading Week is in February.
(26) Topicalization
a. That Reading Week is in February, I already know.
(27) Substitution
a. I already know it
(28) Pseudocleft
a. What I already know is that Reading Week is in February
(29) Coordination
a. I already know that Reading Week is in February and that the weather
will be bad.
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
I Constituency tests tell us that there exists a single node that exhaustively
dominates a clause
I What is this category X?
VP
V
know
XP
that Reading Week is in February
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
I We sometimes see a set of words that introduce embedded clauses (i.e., if, that,
for)
+complementizers
(30) I already know that Reading Week is in February
(31) a. I know that Reading Week is in February.
b. I wonder if Reading Week is in February.
c. I planned for Reading Week to be in February.
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
XP for a clause is
A clause = a complementizer clause (CP)
VP
V
know
CP
that Reading Week is in February
What would be the head of a CP?
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
CP
The head of a complementizer is a complementizer (C)
VP
V
know
CP
C
that
XP
that Reading Week is in February
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
I Subordinated clauses can be c-selected by verbs in the main clauses
I verbs are selective about which complementizer they choose
I CPs also pattern as constituents with Vs that introduce them (35)
(32) a. Franny must know that she will leave.
b. Franny must know if she will leave.
c. Franny must know whether she will leave.
(33) a. Franny may think that she left.
b. *Franny may think if she left.
c. *Franny may think whether she left.
(34) a. *Franny will wonder that she left.
b. Franny will wonder if she left.
c. Franny will wonder whether she left.
(35) Franny will [say that she left] and Hassan will [say that she left], too
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
I You may have two questions…
I What happens if the complementizer is not there?
I What is the XP? Does C c-select something else?
VP
V
know
CP
C
that
XP
Reading Week is in February
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
I The presence of a complementizer may be optional or obligatory in English
(36) a. I know Reading Week is in February.
b. *I wondered Reading Week is in February.
VP
V
know
CP
C
∅
XP
Reading Week is in February
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
Question
What does C select?
VP
V
know
CP
C
∅
XP
Franny devoured the cookie
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
Observation
XP has the importance in introducing the subject of the sentence
VP
V
know
CP
C
∅
XP
DP
Franny
VP
devoured the cookie
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
XP
XP is a tense phrase (TP)
VP
V
know
CP
C
∅[-q]
TP
DP
Franny
VP
devoured the cookie
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
I Tense is a property of clauses dealing with their temporal characteristics
I when the situation / event took place relative to the moment of speech
I English distinguishes past vs. non-past with bound tense morphology
I English uses a special free grammatical morpheme to mark the future
(37) a. Franny devoured the cookie. (past tense)
b. Franny devours the cookie. (non-past tense)
c. Franny will devour the cookie. (future)
I Note that not all clauses indicate the tense
I The distinction between tensed and tenseless clauses
(38) a. Hassan persuaded/expected Franny to call the senator
b. Hassan persuades/expects Franny to call the senator
c. Hassan will persuade/expect Franny to call the senator
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
I Complementizers (C) are sensitive to this tensed vs. tenseless distinction
I C selects TP
(39) a. I heard that Franny called the senator
b. *I heard that Franny to call the senator
(40) a. *I prefer for Franny called the senator
b. I prefer for Franny to call the senator
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
TP
DP
D
Franny
T
+tense
VP
called the senator
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
(41) Franny will call the senator and Mary will call the senator, too. (Ellipsis test)
(42) a. Franny will/should/can call the senator.
b. *Franny will/should/can called the senator.
c. will, would, shall, should, can, could, may, might (modals)
TP
DP
Franny
?
T
+tense
VP
called the senator
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
TP
DP
Franny
T’
T
will
VP
called the senator
Specifier
DP in this position is known as a specifier
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
We learnt that there are two ways to combine phrases in syntax
Complementation
XP → X (ZP)
XP
X (ZP)
Adjunction
XP → XP YP
XP
XP YP
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Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure
We also learnt that a clause contains two projections CP and TP
Clausal structure
CP – TP – VP
CP
C
complementizer
TP
DP
subject
T’
T
modals
VP
predicate
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Phrase structure
Complementation
Adjunction
Clausal structure