CS计算机代考程序代写 Constituent Order

Constituent Order

Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

Constituent Order

LIN102H1F – Lecture 5

July 20th, 2021

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

Clausal structure

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

I Phrase structure

I A phrase must have a head

I A phrase may consist solely of a head or multiple words

I Two phrases may be combined via one of the two phrase structure rules

DP

D
the

NP

N
box

VP

V
run

AP

A
big

AdvP

Adv
calmly

PP

P
through

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

Complementation

XP → X (YP)

XP

X (YP)

Adjunction

XP → XP YP

XP

XP YP

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

I already know that Reading Week is in February.

(1) Topicalization

a. That Reading Week is in February, I already know.

(2) Substitution

a. I already know it

(3) Pseudocleft

a. What I already know is that Reading Week is in February

(4) Coordination

a. I already know that Reading Week is in February and that the weather will
be bad.

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

I Constituency tests tell us that there exists a single node that exhaustively
dominates a clause

I What is this category X?

VP

V

know

XP

that Reading Week is in February

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

I We sometimes see a set of words that introduce embedded clauses (i.e., if, that,
for)

+complementizers

(5) I already know that Reading Week is in February

(6) a. I know that Reading Week is in February.
b. I wonder if Reading Week is in February.
c. I planned for Reading Week to be in February.

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

XP for a clause is

A clause = a complementizer clause (CP)

VP

V

know

CP

that Reading Week is in February

What would be the head of a CP?

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

CP

The head of a complementizer is a complementizer (C)

VP

V

know

CP

C

that

XP

that Reading Week is in February

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

I Subordinated clauses can be c-selected by verbs in the main clauses

I verbs are selective about which complementizer they choose
I CPs also pattern as constituents with Vs that introduce them (10)

(7) a. Franny must know that she will leave.
b. Franny must know if she will leave.
c. Franny must know whether she will leave.

(8) a. Franny may think that she left.
b. *Franny may think if she left.
c. *Franny may think whether she left.

(9) a. *Franny will wonder that she left.
b. Franny will wonder if she left.
c. Franny will wonder whether she left.

(10) Franny will [say that she left] and Hassan will [say that she left], too

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

I You may have two questions…

I What happens if the complementizer is not there?

I What is the XP? Does C c-select something else?

VP

V

know

CP

C

that

XP

Reading Week is in February

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

I The presence of a complementizer may be optional or obligatory in English

(11) a. I know Reading Week is in February.
b. *I wondered Reading Week is in February.

VP

V

know

CP

C

XP

Reading Week is in February

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

Question

What does C select?

VP

V

know

CP

C

XP

Franny devoured the cookie

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

Observation

XP has the importance in introducing the subject of the sentence

VP

V

know

CP

C

XP

DP

Franny

VP

devoured the cookie

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

XP

XP is a tense phrase (TP)

VP

V

know

CP

C

∅[-q]

TP

DP

Franny

VP

devoured the cookie

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

I Tense is a property of clauses dealing with their temporal characteristics

I when the situation / event took place relative to the moment of speech

I English distinguishes past vs. non-past with bound tense morphology

I English uses a special free grammatical morpheme to mark the future

(12) a. Franny devoured the cookie. (past tense)
b. Franny devours the cookie. (non-past tense)
c. Franny will devour the cookie. (future)

I Note that not all clauses indicate the tense

I The distinction between tensed and tenseless clauses

(13) a. Hassan persuaded/expected Franny to call the senator
b. Hassan persuades/expects Franny to call the senator
c. Hassan will persuade/expect Franny to call the senator

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

I Complementizers (C) are sensitive to this tensed vs. tenseless distinction

I C selects TP

(14) a. I heard that Franny called the senator
b. *I heard that Franny to call the senator

(15) a. *I prefer for Franny called the senator
b. I prefer for Franny to call the senator

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

TP

DP

D
Franny

T
+tense

VP

called the senator

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

(16) Franny will call the senator and Mary will call the senator, too. (Ellipsis test)

(17) a. Franny will/should/can call the senator.
b. *Franny will/should/can called the senator.
c. will, would, shall, should, can, could, may, might (modals)

TP

DP

Franny

?

T

+tense

VP

called the senator

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

TP

DP

Franny

T’

T
will

VP

called the senator

Specifier

DP in this position is known as a specifier

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

We learnt that there are two ways to combine phrases in syntax

Complementation

XP → X (ZP)

XP

X (ZP)

Adjunction

XP → XP YP

XP

XP YP

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

We also learnt that a clause contains two projections CP and TP

Clausal structure

CP – TP – VP

CP

C
complementizer

TP

DP
subject

T’

T
modals

VP
predicate

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

Practice: Clausal structure

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

John ate a big meal.

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

CP

C

TP

DP

D
John

T’

T
+past

VP

V
ate

DP

D
a

NP

AP

A
big

NP

N
meal

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

Mary cooked a traditional dish for her birthday.

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

CP

C

TP

DP

D
Mary

T’

T
+past

VP

VP

V
cooked

DP

D
a

NP

AP

A
traditional

NP

N
dish

PP

P
for

DP

D
her

NP

N
birthday

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

John thinks that Mary passed the exam.

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

CP

C

TP

DP

D
John

T’

T
-past

VP

V
thinks

CP

C
that

TP

DP

D
Mary

T’

T
+past

VP

V
passed

DP

D
the

NP

N
exam

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

Principles & Parameters

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

I In Lecture 1, we discussed the problematization of human capacity for language

I Up until the 20the century, a dominant view of language was that it is learnt, like a
habit (cf., behaviourism)

I imitation

I reinforcement

I analogy

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

Imitation

Children imitate what they hear

I Children nonetheless make utterances that do not reflect what they hear

I e.g., a my pencil, two foot, what the boy hit?

I Children are unable to produce sentences that they would not spontaneously
produce

I e.g., He go out (He’s going out), old-time train (It’s an old-time train)

I Children with speech impairment learn the language spoken to them and
understand what is said

I Children only imitate 5 to 40% of the time in conversations (O’Grady 2008)

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

Reinforcement

Children learn as their grammatical utterances are positively reinforced and
ungrammatical utterances are negatively reinforced

I reinforcement is rarely observed

I explicit reinforcement by parents is found more for the truth value and not
syntactic well-formedness

I children fail to understand and correct errors

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

Reinforcement

Children learn as their grammatical utterances are positively reinforced and
ungrammatical utterances are negatively reinforced

I reinforcement is rarely observed

I explicit reinforcement by parents is found more for the truth value and not
syntactic well-formedness

I children fail to understand and correct errors

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

Analogy

Children use a sample sentence they have heard to form other sentences.

I But it doesn’t work…

I The boy was sleeping ⇒ Was the boy sleeping?

I The boy who is sleeping is dreaming about a new car ⇒ *Is the boy who sleeping is
dreaming about a new car?

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

The innateness hypothesis

The hypothesis that children’s brains are ‘programmed’ to learn language
(definition from Samúelsdóttir 2015)

I the experience of a language learner was not sufficiently complete to explain the
kind of knowledge of language that speakers end up developing

I Chomsky proposed a better metaphor was a developmental one: languages develop
through a process of maturation, more like an organ in the body.

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

I The puzzle of how children acquire language seemingly effortlessly in just few
years

I Evidence of unformity across languages (e.g., hierarchical structure, inventory of
categories), which is by hypothesis a biological endowment (aka. we are
‘hard-wired’ for this)

I The diversity that is observed across languages (e.g. word order differences,
morphological differences) – which stands in contrast to the uniformity

I What does this tell us about the design of language of a cognitive system?

I the tension between explaining uniformity and accounting for diversity

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

Principles

The aspects of language that
are invariant across languages

Parameters

The aspects of language that
can vary across languages (cf.,

choices on a menu)

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

I A variation among languages as to constituent ordering

I basic word order (SVO vs. SOV)

I V-to-T (V in T)

I Null subject … etc.

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

SVO vs. SOV

(18) a. Kaz purchased a board game.
b. Hong-yan is studying syntax.
c. Ana Tona has a Master’s degree.

(19) a. Kaz-wa
Kaz-subj

board
board

game-o
game-obj

katta.
purchased

‘Kaz purchased a board game.’

b. Hong-yan-wa
Hong-yan-subj

toogoron-o
syntax-obj

benkyoo-shiteiru
study-doing

‘Hong-yan is studying syntax.’

c. Ana
Ana

Tona-wa
Tona-subj

shuushigoo-o
Master’s.degree-obj

motteiru.
holding

‘Ana Tona has a Master’s degree.’

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

ate a cookie

VP

V
ate

DP
a cookie

VP

DP
a cookie

V
ate

Is the rule we apply to derive the left-hand tree different from the one we apply to the one on
the right?

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

Complementation

XP → X (YP)

XP

X YP

XP

YP X

Head first parameter (headedness)

A complement can be on the left or right of the head

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

Overt subject vs. Null subject

(20) a. Julius Caesar was betrayed (cf. *Was betrayed)

b. Fui
was.1st

tradito
betrayed

‘I was betrayed.’

Null subject parameter

The subject must be phonologically realized or not realized
in a sentence

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

Verb placement (relative to other elements)

(21) a. Romeo carefully words his letters.
b. *Romép soigneusement formule ses lettres.

(22) a. *Romeo words carefully his letters.
b. Roméo formule soigneusement ses lettres.

(23) a. Romeo did not visit his neighbours.
b. *Roméo ne pas visite ses voisins.

(24) a. *Romeo did visit not his neighbours.
b. Roméo ne visite pas ses voisins.

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

CP

C

TP

DP

D
Romeo

T’

T
-past

VP

AdvP

Adv
carefully

VP

V
words

DP

D
his

NP

N
letters

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

CP

C

TP

DP

D
Romeo

T’

T
did

NegP

Neg
not

VP

V
visit

DP

D
his

NP

N
neighbour

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

CP

C

TP

DP

D
Roméo

T’

T
-past

VP

AdvP

Adv
soigneusement

VP

V
formule

DP

D
ses

NP

N
voisins

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

CP

C

TP

DP

D
Roméo

T’

T
-past

formule

VP

AdvP

Adv
soigneusement

VP

V DP

D
ses

NP

N
voisins

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

CP

C

TP

DP

D
Roméo

T’

T
visite

NegP

Neg
pas

VP

V DP

D
ses

NP

N
voisins

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

V-to-T (V in T) parameter

The verb (V) is found in the T node or not

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Clausal structure Practice: Clausal structure Principles & Parameters

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Clausal structure
Practice: Clausal structure
Principles & Parameters