CS计算机代考程序代写 flex algorithm Constituency

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

A

V

un- V
lock

A
-able

OR

A

un- A

V
lock

A
-able

It is possible to unlock vs. It is not possible to lock (lockable)

form bound/free category c-selection output cat. lexical restr. meaning

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

Morpho-syntactic types

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

Morphology ⇔ Syntax

Categories Morphological criteria Syntactic criteria

N can take -s can follow Det (A)

V can take -ing can follow ‘will’ or ‘to’

A can take -ly to make Adv can occur between Det and N

(1) a. N: This is the (best)
b. V: It will / I want to soon
c. A: This is the book

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

I Words combine to form larger units known as phrases

I Distributional properties of phrases seem to be determined by category

I Nouns can take possessive ’s morphology

I Nouns can be the subject of a sentence (found to the left of V)

(2) a. Elizabeth’s hat
b. the queen’s hat
c. the queen of England’s hat
d. a queen you’ve never heard of’s hat

(3) a. Elizabeth waved
b. the queen waved
c. the queen of England waved
d. a queen you’ve heard of waved

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

The basic components of a sentence are expressed via word formation in some
languages while they are expressed via phrase formation in others

Elizabeth waved.

I The basic components of a sentence:

subject : what identifies an individual/entity the sentence is about

predicate : what assigns some kind of property to the subject

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

A variation exists as to how languages combine morphemes to form words

Analytic
(isolating)

Agglutinating
Synthetic
(fusional)

Polysynthetic

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

Analytic (isolating)

Languages which have sentences composed entirely of frtee morphemes; in gen-
eral, each word consists of only one morpheme

(4) a. wO
1st

m@n
pl

tan
play

tCin
piano

l@
pst

‘We played the piano.’
(Mandarin Chinese; Manker 2016)

b. ta
he

chi
eat

fan
meal

le.
past

‘He ate the meal.’
(O’Grady & Archibald)

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

Agglutinating

Languages allow affixation; words can be composed of two or more morphemes
(bound morphemes show a 1:1 mapping of form and meaning in general)

(5)

a. Ninasoma. ‘I am reading.’
b. Anasoma. ‘S/he is reading.’
c. Tunasoma. ‘We are reading.’
d. Nilisoma. ‘I read [past].’
e. Alisoma. ‘S/he read.’
f. Nitasoma. ‘I will read.’
g. Tutasoma. ‘We will read.’

(6) ni-na-soma
I-present-read
‘I am reading.’ (Swahili; Manker 2016)

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Synthetic (fusional)

Languages allow affixation; words can be composed of two or more morphemes
(bound morphemes show a 1:many mapping of form and meaning in general)

(7) a. habl-o
speak-1.sg.pres
‘I am speaking.’

b. habl-a
speak-3.sg.pres
‘S/he is speaking.’

c. habl-ó
speak-3.sg.past
‘S/he spoke.’ (Spanish; Manker 2016)

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Polysynthetic

Languages that show a high degree of affixation (many morphemes per word,
there may be multiple roots in a single word)

(8) tusaa-nngit-su-usaar-tuaannar-sinnaa-nngi-vip-putit
‘hear’-neg-intrans.participle-‘pretend’-all.the.time’-‘can’-neg-‘really’-2.sg.ind
‘You simply cannot pretend not to be hearing all the time.’

(West Greenlandic; Manker 2016)

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

Syntactic knowledge

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

I One major way of classifying languages is the order of basic elements in a sentence

I subject, verb, object

I English is a SVO language

e.g., Kelly ate the cookie

I A total of 6 logically possible combinations of S, V, O:

I SVO, SOV, VSO, VOS, OSV, OVS

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

(9) a. Ne-tohitohi
pst-writing

a-Sione
Sione

‘Sione was writing.’

b. Ne-kai
pst-eat

he-pusi
cat

la
that

e-moa
bird

‘The cat ate the bird.’ (Niuean)

(10) a. Mirzebega
Mirzebeg

k’ewi-z
strong-ly

haraj-na
shout-pst

‘Mirzebeg shouted loudly.’

b. AlfIjadi
AlfIja

mañala
article

kxe-na
write-pst

‘AlfIja wrote an article.’ (Lezgian)

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

(11) a. Numa
father

banaganyu.
returned

‘Father returned.’

b. Numa
father

jajaNgu
child

Namba-n
hear-pst

‘The child heard father.’ (Dyirbal)

(12) a. Pǐstarā
bought

muh
˙
umadun

Mohammed
sā‘atan
watch

‘Mohammed bought a watch.’

b. yaqra’u
read

l-mudarrisu
the-teacher

l-kitāba
the-book

‘The teacher read the book.’ (Classical Arabic)

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

(13) a. ea-taya
pst-hit

na
the

None
child

na
the

yalewa
girl

‘The girl hit the child.’

b. era-la’o
3pl-go

na
the

None
child

‘The children are going.’ (Fijian)

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

Question

What is the speakers’ knowledge for identifying what counts as a(n)
(un)grammatical sequence of words

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

I Hypothesis 1: It could be memorization of observed sequences

I There are infinitely many possible word combinations

I A corpus study reports that more than 99% of sentences occur only once
(Sportiche, Koopman, & Stabler (SKS) p.514)

I Hypothesis 2: It could be memorization of category sequences

I “Det N V Det N” → ‘the dog chased the cat’ vs. ‘*the chased cat the’

I *those air put a compliments

I “many sequences of categories … are so rare that you will hear them only once if at
all” (p.514)

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

I a parsing algorithm (a program that finds the syntactic structures in a string)

+ 29,859,840 possible orderings of a single sentence with 17 words

I The number of acceptable orderings represent about one 8.4 millionth of a
percent of the possible orderings (p.517)

I Syntax is very constraining but at the same time it is flexible and expressive

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

“What seems to be minimally required is the hypothesis that linguistic knowledge
involves recursive rules that are not sensitive to properties like length: among the
properties of the linguistic engine, there exist finite devices that allow strings of
morphemes to be infinitely long in principle, even though there are finitely many
morphemes in a language and even though strings of infinite length are not produced in
reality.” (p. 514)

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

I Ex, A → A B

A

A B

A

A

A B

B

A

A

A

A B

B

B

I The rule excludes a tree like

A

A B

A B

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

Observation

Certain types of strings can be iterated any number of times

(14)

I saw the book. pronoun V D N
I saw the book on the chair. pronoun V D N P D N
I saw the book on the chair in the library. pronoun V D N P D N P D N
I saw the book on the chair in the library on the hill. pronoun V D N P D N P D N P D N

(15)

I saw the book. pronoun V D N
*I saw the book the chair. pronoun V D N D N
*I saw the book on the chair in the. pronoun V D N P D N P D
*I saw the book on the in the chair. pronoun V D N P D P D N

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

Hypothesis

Syntactic units are build in ‘chunks’, not beads of a string

+ Syntactic units are hiearchically organized

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

Constituency

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

Definition (informal)

A constituent is a syntactic string that speakers can manipulate as a single chunk

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

I [[N in] [D the] [N kitchen]]

P

in

Det

the

N

kitchen

Definition (formal)

A constituent is a set of nodes that is exhaustively dominated by a single higher
node

+ A node N exhaustively dominates a set of nodes S [1, 2… n] if and only if every node in S
is dominated by A, and A does not dominate any node that is not in S

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

Constituency tests

Substitution

Ellipsis

Coordination

Movement

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

Substitution test

Can you substitute a single word in its place with something we have good reason
to believe as a unit?

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

(16) a. This girl in the red coat will put a picture of Bill on your desk before
tomorrow.

b. She will put a picture of Bill on your desk before tomorrow.

c. This girl in the red coat will put it on your desk before tomorrow.

d. This one will put a picture of Bill on your desk before tomorrow

e. This girl in the red coat will put a picture of Bill there before tomorrow.

f. This girl in the red coat will put a picture of Bill on it before tomorrow.

g. This girl in the red one will put a picture of Bill on your desk before
tomorrow.

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

Ellipsis test

Can you ‘ellide’ a string of words (or replace a chunk with a null string)?

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I Suppose a conversation between Speaker A and Speaker B:

I A: “That girl in the red coat will not put a picture of Bill on your desk before
tomorrow.”

I B: “Yes, but this girl in the read coat will put a picture of Bill on your desk
before tomorrow.”

• b1: “Yes, but this girl in the read coat will put a picture of Bill on your desk
before tomorrow.”

• b2: “Yes, but this girl in the read coat will put a picture of Bill on your desk
before tomorrow.”

• b3: *“Yes, but this girl in the read coat will put a picture of Bill on your desk
before tomorrow.”

• b4: *“Yes, but this girl in the read coat will put a picture of Bill on your desk
before tomorrow.”

• b5: *“Yes, but this girl in the read coat will put a picture of Bill on your desk
before tomorrow.”

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

“As usual, since we want to control what we are doing as much as possible, we also
want to restrict the experimental variables as much as possible. One condition that we
impose is that ellipsis be done in those discourse contexts in which an antecedent
sentence is present. Then we want to keep the same intended meaning, that is, with the
crossed out parts necessarily understood, and understood in the same way as in the
antecedent sentence. In other words, we again require that the pair of sentences with or
without ellipsis be true or false in the same situations, that is, have the same truth
value.” (p. 526)

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

(17) a. This girl will go to school.
b. This girl will go to school and that one will go to school, too.
c. This girl will go to school and that one will do so, too.

(VP ellipsis)

(18) a. That girl will not go to school.
b. That girl will not go to school, will she go to school?
c. That girl will go to school.
d. That girl will not go to school, won’t she go to school?

(tag question)

(19) a. Matilda brought her dog.
b. Juan brought his dog, too.

(nominal ellipsis)

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

Coordination test

Can you link a chunk with another similar string (using a conjunction)?

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

(20) a. It’s raining [cats] and [dogs].

b. [Matilda] and [Juan] brought their dogs.

c. Matilda [went to the store] and [brought a tomato].

*This girl in the red [coat will ] and [dress must] put a picture of Bill on your desk

What are coordinated must be of the same category

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Movement test

Can you move a chunk to another position (e.g., the very front) in a sentence?

I Movement (for now): a permutation on word order that preserves a meaning

(21) a. Franny will bring her dog tomorrow.
b. Her dog, Franny will bring tomorrow.

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

Movements

CleftingTopicalization Pseudoclefting

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

I This girl in the red coat will put the picture of Bill on your desk before tomorrow.

I The picture of Bill, this girl in the red coat will put the picture of Bill on your desk
before tomorrow.

I On your desk, this girl in the red coat will put a picture of Bill on your desk before
tomorrow.

I Put a picture of Bill on your desk, this girl in the red coat will put a picture of Bill
on your desk before tomorrow [VP-preposing].

I Put a picture of Bill on your desk before tomorrow, this girl in the red coat will put
a picture of Bill on your desk before tomorrow. [VP-preposing]

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

I But…

I *This your, this girl in the red coat will put a picture of Bill on your desk before
tomorrow.

I *Will Bill, this girl in the red coat will put a picture of Bill on your desk before
tomorrow.

I *Girl in the red coat, this girl in the red coat will put a picture of Bill on your desk
before tomorrow.

I *Picture of Bill, this girl in the red coat will put a picture of Bill on your desk before
tomorrow.

I *The red, this girl in the red coat will put a picture of Bill on your desk before
tomorrow.

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

I John wants to look at your notes after class.

I It is your notes that/which John wants to look at after class.
I It is after class that John wants to look at your notes.
I It is John who wants to look at your notes after class.

I This girl in the red coat will put a picture of Bill on your desk before tomorrow.

I It is a picture of Bill that this girl in the red coat will put on your desk before
tomorrow.

I *It is put a picture of Bill on your desk before tomorrow that this girl in the red
coat will

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

I John wants to look at your notes now.

I What John wants to look at now is your notes

I Mary gave a book to John.

I *What Mary gave was a book to John

I Mary will arrive tomorrow.

I *It is arrive tomorrow that Mary will.
I What Mary will do is arrive tomorrow.

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Morpho-syntactic types Syntactic knowledge Constituency

P

P

in

N

Det

the

N

kitchen
⇒

PP

P

in

NP

Det

the

N

kitchen

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Morpho-syntactic types
Syntactic knowledge
Constituency