CS计算机代考程序代写 Morphology

Morphology

Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

Morphology

LIN102H1F – Lecture 2

July 8th, 2021

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

Morphology

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

I Morphology (or word formation) offers an important kind of distributional
evidence for category distinctions

I Morphemes: the smallest meaningful unit of language

I semantically meaningful, indicating a grammatical property

I Some properties of morphemes we discuss today:

I free vs. bound

I roots vs. affixes

I In order to discuss these concepts, we will look at morphologically complex words

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

I Words can be simple or complex

I a word that consists only of one morpheme: the word is simple

I a word that consists of more than one morpheeme: the word is complex

I Set: general, generalize, generalization, overgeneralization

+ We can find subparts of words that are words themselves

+ But not all subparts are words on their own

I Free vs. bound morphemes

I Free morphemes: can appear independently

I Bound morphemes: must appear attached to another element

Bound morphemes are often referred to as affixes

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

Affixes

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

Derivational morphology

I forms a word with a
meaning and/or category
distinct from that of its
base

I relatively restricted to its
application

Inflectional morphology

I modifies a word to indicate
grammatical information
(e.g., tense, aspect,
number)

I relatively free in its
application

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

Derivational morphology vs. Inflectional morphology

I #1: Derivational morphology may alter the meaning of the base, whereas
inflectional morphology may not

I drive + -er = driver vs. drive + -s = (he) drives

I #2: may alter the lexical category of the base, whereas inflectional affixes may not

I drive (v) → driver (N) vs. drive (V) → drives (V)

I #3: Derivational affixes appear relatively closer to the base than inflectional affixes
I driv-er-s, act-iv-ti-es

I #4: Derivational affixes cannot apply to the base as freely as inflectional affixes

I *studi-er, *help-ant (cf. assistant)

I plural -s, past tense -ed

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

Prefix an affix that is attached to the left of a base

Suffix an affix that is attached to the right of a base

Infix an affix that is attached inside a base

Circumfix an affix that is attached to the both sides of a base

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

Prefix

a. happy → unhappy
b. assign → reassign

Suffix

a. teach → teacher
b. real → realism

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

Infix

Tagalog past tense

a. bili ‘buy’ → binili ‘bought’
b. basa ‘read’ → binasa ‘read’

Bontoc ‘become X’

a. fikas ‘strong’ → fumikas ‘he is becoming strong’
b. bato ‘stone’ → bumato ‘he is becoming stone’

English expletive

a. Massachussetts → Massa-fuckin’-chussetts
b. Alabama → Ala-fuckin’-bama
c. fantastic → fan-fuckin’-tastic

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

Circumfix

German past participle

a. lieb ‘love’ → geliebt ‘loved/beloved’
b. spiel ‘play’ → gespielt ‘played’

Chicksaw negation

a. lakna ‘it is yellow’ → iklakno ‘it is not yellow’
b. palli ‘it is hot’ → ikpallo ‘it is not hot’

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

Tri-consonantal Root

Arabic

k-t-b ‘related to writing’

a. kataba ‘he wrote’

b. yaktubu ‘he writes’

c. kātib ‘writer’

d. aktaba ‘he dictates’

e. maktab ‘office’

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

Suprasegmental affix

a. pérmit (N) vs. perḿıt (V)

b. áddress (N) vs. addréss (V)

Stem change

a. run (present) → ran (past)
b. swim (present) → swam (past)

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

Zero morphology (null affix)

a. apple-∅ (singular) vs. apple-s (plural)
b. fish-∅ (singular) vs. fish-∅ (plural)
c. eat-s (3rd person subject) vs. eat-∅ (non-3rd person subject)

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

I Set: general, generalize, generalization, overgeneralization

I Roots:

I “… the root of the word is what you start with, before any affixes have been
added” (p.485)

I e.g., de-human-ize

I Roots vs. Affixes

I Roots are always free? (Definition given so far are misleading…)

+ Roots may be bound

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

(1) a. *ceive, perceive, receive, deceive, conceive
b. *sist, persist, resist, desist, consist

(2) a. *scissor
b. scissors
c. scissor-kick, scissor-hands

(3) a. *kempt
b. unkempt
c. well-kempt

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

*gat ‘cat’ *perr ‘dog’ *maestr ‘teacher’

masc. gat-o perr-o maestr-o

masc.pl gat-os perr-os maestr-os

fem. gat-a perr-a maestr-a

fem. pl gat-as perr-as maestr-as

(Spanish)

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

Root

I a morpheme that constitutes the core of a word and carries the
major component of its meaning

I it has an independent meaning

Affix

I a morpheme that gives additional meaning to the root

I it has ‘slots’ in their meaning but only completed by its
attachment to the base

I an affix needs a complement

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

I Free morphemes in many languages can attach to each other to form compound
words

black + board → blackboard
white + house → whitehouse
green + gas → greengas

I Compounds behave differently from a simple sequence of two words

I stress placement

I blackboard vs. black board

I position of affixes

I *droped kick, [drop kick]ed

I modifier

I *very greengas

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

Morphological analysis

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

I Suppose that you elicited language data from a language you are investigating.

I How would you tell the shape and identity of roots and affixes found in the
dataset?

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

I Zulu

umfazi ‘married woman’ abafazi ‘married women’

umfani ‘boy’ abafani ‘boys’

umzali ‘parent’ abazali ‘parents’

umfundisi ‘teacher’ abafundisi ‘teachers’

umbazi ‘carver’ ababazi ‘carvers’

umlimi ‘farmer’ abalimi ‘farmers’

umdlali ‘player’ abadlali ‘players’

umfundi ‘reader’ abafundi ‘readers’

fundisa ‘to teach’ funda ‘to read’

lima ‘to cultivate’ baza ‘to carve’

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

I Zulu

umfazi ‘married woman’ abafazi ‘married women’

umfani ‘boy’ abafani ‘boys’

umzali ‘parent’ abazali ‘parents’

umfundisi ‘teacher’ abafundisi ‘teachers’

umbazi ‘carver’ ababazi ‘carvers’

umlimi ‘farmer’ abalimi ‘farmers’

umdlali ‘player’ abadlali ‘players’

umfundi ‘reader’ abafundi ‘readers’

fundisa ‘to teach’ funda ‘to read’

lima ‘to cultivate’ baza ‘to carve’

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

I Zulu

umfazi ‘married woman’ abafazi ‘married women’

umfani ‘boy’ abafani ‘boys’

umzali ‘parent’ abazali ‘parents’

umfundisi ‘teacher’ abafundisi ‘teachers’

umbazi ‘carver’ ababazi ‘carvers’

umlimi ‘farmer’ abalimi ‘farmers’

umdlali ‘player’ abadlali ‘players’

umfundi ‘reader’ abafundi ‘readers’

fundisa ‘to teach’ funda ‘to read’

lima ‘to cultivate’ baza ‘to carve’

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

I Zulu

umfazi ‘married woman’ abafazi ‘married women’

umfani ‘boy’ abafani ‘boys’

umzali ‘parent’ abazali ‘parents’

umfundisi ‘teacher’ abafundisi ‘teachers’

umbazi ‘carver’ ababazi ‘carvers’

umlimi ‘farmer’ abalimi ‘farmers’

umdlali ‘player’ abadlali ‘players’

umfundi ‘reader’ abafundi ‘readers’

fundisa ‘to teach’ funda ‘to read’

lima ‘to cultivate’ baza ‘to carve’

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

Complex words

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

Compositionality

The meaning of a complex structure is a function of the meanings of its parts

I English nouns formed with -er follow a systematic pattern

I V + -er ⇒ one who does V

I This pattern is productive (or generative)

I I need to debug a computer program. I should run a debugger

I Do you telemark? I’m an OK telemarker

I My cat kneels a lot. She is a regular

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

I Not all complex forms are compositional ⇒ idiomaticity

I Word level:

e.g., stool pigeon, pick pocket, considerable … etc.

I Phrase level:

a. The old man kicked the bucket

b. The police were barking up the wrong tree.

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

I The meaning of a compound may or may not be transparent from its components

I bearskin (a bearskin rug) = endocentric

I cowhand (He works as a cowhand on the ranch) = exocentric

I Examples:

I bookshop as in “She manages a bookshop.”

I pickpocket

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

I Complex words include morphemes that stand in special relations with one another

I Recall: an affix is not ‘complete’ → it needs its complement

I An affix selects its complement:

I category selection (c-selection)

I Once an affix attaches to its complement, it is the head that determines the
category of the resulting complex form

Head

One of the sub-parts that determines the category

un- + lock, V → unlock, V black, A + board, N → blackboard, N

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

I In addition to c-selection, affixes are sometimes picky about their bases in other
ways

(4) a. national, rational, ornamental, sentimental, mayoral, pastoral
b. *neighbourhoodal, *friendal, *meatal, *friendal

..

I The suffix -al only attaches to latinate bases

I We call the restriction lexical restrictions

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

I C-selection involves a relation between morphemes in complex words

I But it also must be a stored property of an individual morpheme

I The c-selection properties of a morpheme are part of the knowledge of a
speaker must acquire about that morpheme

I The sum of morphological knowledge a speaker has about a morpheme

I lexical entry of a morpheme

form bound/free category c-selection category lexical meaning
of morpheme of result restriction

-al bound(suff) N A latinate relating
to

digit free N digit

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

base

speak

suffix

-er

speaker

speak -er

N

V Af

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

Locality

Selection is local in the sense that an item can only select
properties of its sister(s)

availability

available

avail -able

-ity

N

A

A
avail

A
-able

N
-ity

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

Right-Hand Head Rule (RHHR) in English

the rightmost element of a word is the head of a word

V

un- V
lock

N

V
speak

N
-er

V

A

N
digit

A
-al

V
-ize

N

A
black

N
board

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

Locality

Selection is local in the sense that an item can only select
properties of its sisters

Right-Hand Head Rule (RHHR) *for English

The rightmost element of a word is the head of the word

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Morphology Affixes Morphological analysis Complex words

I Practice drawing tree diagrams for…:

I indifferent

I equalization

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Morphology
Affixes
Morphological analysis
Complex words