CS计算机代考程序代写 Phrases & Clauses

Phrases & Clauses

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

Phrases & Clauses

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4

July 15th, 2021

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 1 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

Word structure (morphology)

Whether a group of morphemes form a unit or not

⇒ whether the unit is found as a (real) word or not

de- N
human

V
-ize

de- V

N
human

V
-ize

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 2 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

Sentence structure (syntax)

Whether a group of words form a unit or not

⇒ constituency tests

I In the supplementary video, I discussed 4 tests

I Substitution: can you replace the string with a single word?

I Ellipsis: can you remove the string without affecting the meaning?

I Coordination: can you link the string with another via and/but?

I Movement: can you move the string to another position of the sentence?

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 3 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

I The girl in the red coat will put a picture of Bill on your desk before tomorrow.

I Substitution:
• She will put a picture of Bill …
• *She the red coat will put a picture of Bill…

I Ellipsis:
• Yes, but this girl in the read coat will put a picture of Bill on your desk before

tomorrow.

• *Yes, but this girl in the red coat will put a picture of Bill on your desk before
tomorrow.

I Coordination:
• Matilda [went to the store] and [bought a tomato]
• *Matilda [went to the store] and [respectively]

I Movement:
• The picture of Bill, this girl in the red coat will…
• *This your, girl in the red coat will…

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 4 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

Sentence structure (syntax)

Whether a group of words form a unit or not

⇒ constituency tests

(1) a. This girl in the red coat will put a picture of Bill on your desk before
tomorrow.

b. She will put a picture of Bill on your desk before tomorrow.

c. This one will put a picture of Bill on your desk before tomorrow.

Substitution test

[This girl in the red coat] and [girl in the red coat] are both constituents

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 5 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

A constituent inside another constituent

A hierarchical representation is used to capture the sentence structure

+ a hierarchical organization of units that are bigger than individual words

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 6 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

Phrase structure

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 7 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

I Words combine to form larger units known as phrases

I Distributional properties of phrases seem to be determined by category

I Nouns can take possessive ’s morphology

I Nouns can be the subject of a sentence (found to the left of V)

(2) a. Elizabeth’s hat
b. the queen’s hat
c. the queen of England’s hat
d. a queen you’ve never heard of’s hat

(3) a. Elizabeth waved
b. the queen waved
c. the queen of England waved
d. a queen you’ve heard of waved

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 8 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

I The identity of a phrase is dependent on one of its subparts

(4) a. green leaves, the student, a single interesting object

b. went to the store, finished homework quickly, spoke quickly

c. on the desk, under the chair, to the store

Head

As in morphology, a head in a phrase determines its category

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 9 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

N
box

P
of

DP
chocolates

V
eat

D
the

NP
dinner

+The head of a phrase (minimal category) projects a phrase-level node

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 10 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

Head

Every phrase has a head → the head of a phrase is mandatory

(5) a. box
b. big box
c. box of chocolates
d. big box of chocolates
e. *big of chocolates

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 11 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

I A phrase may consist solely of a head

N
box

V
run

A
big

AdvP

Adv
calmly

P
through

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 12 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

I A phrase may also consist of a head plus other constituents

I The head of a phrase also determines which other constituents the phrase can
contain

(6) a. The kids [ate]
b. The kids [ate the cookies]

c. *The kids [devoured]
d. The kids [devoured the cookies]

e. The kids [watched the movie for 2 hours]
f. *The kids [watched the movie in 2 hours]

g. *The kids [finished the movie for 2 hours]
h. The kids [finished the movie in 2 hours]

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 13 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

I A phrase may…

I select and require a specific constituent (*devour vs. devour the cookies)

I be modified by another constituent (run vs. run quickly)

I Syntactic structure reflects this difference via different rules

Complementation

XP → X (ZP)

X (ZP)

Adjunction

XP → XP YP

XP YP

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 14 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

Complementation

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 15 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

I Complements are phrases that are c-selected by heads

I are needed to complete the meaning or grammatical function of the head (i.e., core
and obligatory component of a phrase structure)

I are introduced in the tree as a sister of the head

(7) a. Franny devoured [the cookie]
b. *Franny deboured [the]
c. *Franny devoured

Complementation

XP → X (ZP)

X (ZP)

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 16 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

I C-selection in syntax ≈ c-selection in morphology
I the information must be part of a lexical entry

I C-selection in syntax 6= c-selection in morphology
I the complement is an XP (not a simple category)

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 17 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

V
devoured

D
the

N
cookie

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 18 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

I Constituency tests: A complement always behaves as though it is inside the XP,
not outside of it

(8) Ellipsis test

a. Franny will [VP devour the cookie]
b. … and Hassan will [VP devour the cookie]
c. *… and Hassan will [VP devour the cookie]

(9) Movement (VP-preposing) test

a. Franny knew Hassan would [VP devour the cookie] and [VP devour the
cookie] he did

b. *Franny knew Hassan would [VP devour the cookie] and devour he did the
cookie

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 19 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

(10) Verbs

a. None:

Franny [ran]
Franny [sneezed]

b. 1 DP:

Franny [devoured the cookie]
Franny [rode the bus]

c. 2 DPs:

Franny[gave [Hassan][the cookie]]
Franny[kicked [Hassan][the ball]

d. 1 DP and 1PP:

Franny [gave [the cookie][to Hassan]]
Franny [kicked [the ball][to Hassan]]

e. Clauses (?P):

Hassan [said that Franny sneezed]
Hassan [said that Franny devoured the cookie]

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 20 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

I Heads vary significantly with respect to their requirements (ex. not all Vs select
complements in the same manner)

I information on these ‘subcategories’ must be included in lexical entries
+ subcategorization frames

form bound/free category c-selection lex.restr. meaning

devour free V[ DP] DP DEVOUR
sneeze free V SNEEZE
give free V[ DP DP] DP DP GIVE
give free V[ DP PP] DP PP GIVE

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 21 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

(11) Nouns

a. PPs:

student of linguistics, box of chocolates

b. Clauses (?Ps):

claim that the earth is flat

c. None:

+in many cases nouns don’t have any complements (this is the norm)

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 22 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

(12) Adjectives

a. None:

+no complement is the norm

b. PPs:

afraid of the dark, proud of myself

c. Clauses (?Ps):

afraid that I will my bus
proud that I finished the project on time

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 23 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

(13) Determiners

a. NPs:

the cookie, my cookie

b. None:

she, they, John (pronouns, proper names)

she

John

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 24 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

I Because a determiner cannot occur on its own (unless it is a pronoun or proper
name), in this class we assume that a determiner takes a NP as its complement

D
the

N
student

D
an

N
orange

D
∅

N
students

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 25 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

Adjunction

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 26 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

I Phrases can be modified by other phrases.

I A modifier optionally enriches the description of the head (via a combinatorial
mechanism called ‘adjunction’)

(14) a. run quickly
b. quickly run
c. eat with a spoon
d. watch for an hour (VPs)

(15) a. big box
b. girl on a bicycle
c. student with a big bag of books
d. people who are kind to strangers (NPs)

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 27 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

I Adjuncts may behave both as though they are outside the XP they modify and
inside of it (constituency tests)

(16) a. Hassan bought that [big [box of chocolates]]

b. Hassan bought that [big [one]]

c. Hassan bought that [one] (substitution test)

I Compare with…

(17) Ellipsis test

a. Franny will [VP devour the cookie]
b. … and Hassan will [VP devour the cookie]
c. *… and Hassan will [VP devour the cookie]

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 28 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

+ We model adjunction by ‘adjoining’ the modifier as a sister to the XP node

I we label the new highest node as XP

I two potential sites for XP-substitution

I a modifier never affects the category of the phrase it attaches to

Adjunction

XP → XP YP

XP YP

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 29 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

big

box

of chocolates

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 30 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

(18) a. Hare [[run races] quickly ]

b. … and Tortoises [ [do so] quickly]

c. … and Tortoises [do so] too (Substitution test)

run

races

AdvP

Adv

quickly

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 31 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

(19) Noun Phrases (NPs):

a. Adjective Phrases (APs):

big box

b. Prepositions Phrases (PPs):

girl on a bicycle, student with a big bag of books

c. Clauses (?Ps):

people who are kind to strangers

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 32 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

(20) Verb Phrases (VPs):

a. Adverb Phrases (AdvPs):

run qucikly, qucikly run

b. Prepositions Phrases (PPs):

eat on a bicycle, watch for an hour

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 33 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

(21) Adjective Phrases (APs):

a. Adjective Phrases (APs):

deep red

b. Adverb Phrases (AdvPs):

mostly red, very red

(22) Adverb Phrases (AdvPs):

a. Adverb Phrases (AdvPs):

very quickly

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 34 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

Rule of modification

A modifier attaches to the phrase it is understood as modifying

(23) Franny ate the cookie on the floor.

#1: where the eating happened

#2: where the cookie is (which cookie)

ate

the cookie

on the floor

ate

Det

the

on the floor

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 35 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

(24) Julia [VP met the man on the bus]

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 36 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

met

the

man

on the bus

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 37 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

met

the

man

on the bus

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 38 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

Complementation

XP → X (ZP)

X (ZP)

Adjunction

XP → XP YP

XP YP

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 39 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

Clausal structure

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 40 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

I A clause…

I is the biggest kind of phrase

I can be broken down into two major components: subject and predicate

I can be introduced recursively (i.e., can appear inside other clauses) → the notion of
‘subordination’

(25) a. Hassan [VP said that Franny sneezed]
b. Hassan [VP said that Franny devoured the cookie]
c. That Franny devoured the cookie [VP upset Hassan]

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 41 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

I already know that Reading Week is in February.

(26) Topicalization

a. That Reading Week is in February, I already know.

(27) Substitution

a. I already know it

(28) Pseudocleft

a. What I already know is that Reading Week is in February

(29) Coordination

a. I already know that Reading Week is in February and that the weather
will be bad.

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 42 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

I Constituency tests tell us that there exists a single node that exhaustively
dominates a clause

I What is this category X?

know

that Reading Week is in February

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 43 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

I We sometimes see a set of words that introduce embedded clauses (i.e., if, that,
for)

+complementizers

(30) I already know that Reading Week is in February

(31) a. I know that Reading Week is in February.
b. I wonder if Reading Week is in February.
c. I planned for Reading Week to be in February.

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 44 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

XP for a clause is

A clause = a complementizer clause (CP)

know

that Reading Week is in February

What would be the head of a CP?

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 45 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

The head of a complementizer is a complementizer (C)

know

that

that Reading Week is in February

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 46 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

I Subordinated clauses can be c-selected by verbs in the main clauses

I verbs are selective about which complementizer they choose
I CPs also pattern as constituents with Vs that introduce them (35)

(32) a. Franny must know that she will leave.
b. Franny must know if she will leave.
c. Franny must know whether she will leave.

(33) a. Franny may think that she left.
b. *Franny may think if she left.
c. *Franny may think whether she left.

(34) a. *Franny will wonder that she left.
b. Franny will wonder if she left.
c. Franny will wonder whether she left.

(35) Franny will [say that she left] and Hassan will [say that she left], too

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 47 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

I You may have two questions…

I What happens if the complementizer is not there?

I What is the XP? Does C c-select something else?

know

that

Reading Week is in February

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 48 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

I The presence of a complementizer may be optional or obligatory in English

(36) a. I know Reading Week is in February.
b. *I wondered Reading Week is in February.

know

∅

Reading Week is in February

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 49 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

Question

What does C select?

know

∅

Franny devoured the cookie

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 50 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

Observation

XP has the importance in introducing the subject of the sentence

know

∅

Franny

devoured the cookie

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 51 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

XP is a tense phrase (TP)

know

∅[-q]

Franny

devoured the cookie

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 52 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

I Tense is a property of clauses dealing with their temporal characteristics

I when the situation / event took place relative to the moment of speech

I English distinguishes past vs. non-past with bound tense morphology

I English uses a special free grammatical morpheme to mark the future

(37) a. Franny devoured the cookie. (past tense)
b. Franny devours the cookie. (non-past tense)
c. Franny will devour the cookie. (future)

I Note that not all clauses indicate the tense

I The distinction between tensed and tenseless clauses

(38) a. Hassan persuaded/expected Franny to call the senator
b. Hassan persuades/expects Franny to call the senator
c. Hassan will persuade/expect Franny to call the senator

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 53 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

I Complementizers (C) are sensitive to this tensed vs. tenseless distinction

I C selects TP

(39) a. I heard that Franny called the senator
b. *I heard that Franny to call the senator

(40) a. *I prefer for Franny called the senator
b. I prefer for Franny to call the senator

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 54 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

D
Franny

T
+tense

called the senator

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 55 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

(41) Franny will call the senator and Mary will call the senator, too. (Ellipsis test)

(42) a. Franny will/should/can call the senator.
b. *Franny will/should/can called the senator.
c. will, would, shall, should, can, could, may, might (modals)

Franny

+tense

called the senator

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 56 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

Franny

T’

T
will

called the senator

Specifier

DP in this position is known as a specifier

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 57 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

We learnt that there are two ways to combine phrases in syntax

Complementation

XP → X (ZP)

X (ZP)

Adjunction

XP → XP YP

XP YP

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 58 / 59

Phrase structure Complementation Adjunction Clausal structure

We also learnt that a clause contains two projections CP and TP

Clausal structure

CP – TP – VP

C
complementizer

DP
subject

T’

T
modals

VP
predicate

LIN102H1F – Lecture 4 Phrases & Clauses July 15th, 2021 59 / 59

Phrase structure
Complementation
Adjunction
Clausal structure

Related Posts