PowerPoint Presentation
Information Technology
FIT2002
IT Project Management
Lecture 2
Organisational structures,
Project and product lifecycles
Video 1:
Learning Objectives
Describe the systems view of project management and how
it applies to information technology (IT) projects
Understand organisations, including the four frames,
organisational structures, and organisational culture
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 2
Projects Cannot Be Run in Isolation
Projects must operate in a broad organisational environment
Project managers need to use systems thinking:
– taking a holistic view of carrying out projects within the
context of the organisation
Senior managers must make sure projects continue to support
current business needs
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 3
A Systems View of Project Management
A systems approach emerged in the 1950s to describe a more
analytical approach to management and problem solving
Three parts include:
– Systems philosophy: an overall model for thinking about
things as systems
– Systems analysis: problem-solving approach
– Systems management: address business, technological,
and organisational issues before making changes to
systems
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 4
Perspectives on organisations
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 5
Structural frame
• Roles and responsibilities,
coordination and control.
• Organisational charts help
describe this frame.
Human resources frame:
• Providing harmony between
needs of the organisation
and needs of people.
Political frame
• Coalitions composed of
varied individuals and
interest groups.
• Conflict and power are key
issues.
Symbolic frame
• Symbols and meanings
related to events.
• Culture, language, traditions,
and image are all parts of
this frame.
Organisation
Frames
Organisational Structures
3 basic organisation structures
– Functional: functional managers report to the CEO
– Project: program managers report to the CEO
– Matrix: middle ground between functional and project
structures; personnel often report to two or more
bosses; structure can be weak, balanced, or strong
matrix
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 6
Functional,
Project, and
Matrix
Organisational
Structures
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 7
Organisational Structure Influences on
Projects
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 8
Organisational Culture
Organisational culture is a set of shared assumptions, values,
and behaviours that characterize the functioning of an
organisation
Many experts believe the underlying causes of many companies’
problems are not the structure or staff
… but the culture !!
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 9
Ten Characteristics of Organisational Culture
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 10
• Member identity*
• Group emphasis*
• Risk tolerance*
• Reward criteria*
• Conflict tolerance*
• Unit integration*
• Open systems focus*
Project work is most successful in an organisational culture
where these items are strong/high
• People focus
• Means-ends orientation
• Control
Project work is most successful in an organisational culture
where these items are balanced
Video 2:
Learning Objectives
Explain why stakeholder management and top
management commitment are critical for a project’s
success
Understand the concept of a project phase and the project
life cycle, and distinguish between project development and
product development
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 11
Project managers must take time to identify, understand, and
manage relationships with all project stakeholders – both the
internal as well as the external stakeholders
Using the four frames of organisations can help meet
stakeholder needs and expectations
Senior executives/top management are very important
stakeholders
Project Stakeholder Management will be covered in greater
depth in Lecture 8
Stakeholder Management
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 12
People in top management positions are key stakeholders in
projects
A very important factor in helping project managers
successfully lead projects is the level of commitment and
support they receive from top management
Without top management commitment, many projects will fail.
Some projects have a senior manager called a champion
who acts as a key proponent for a project.
The Importance of Top Management
Commitment
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 13
Providing adequate resources
Approving unique project needs in a timely manner
Getting cooperation from other parts of the organisation
Mentoring and coaching on leadership issues
How Top Management Can Help Project
Managers
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 14
IT governance addresses the authority and control for key IT
activities in organisations, including IT infrastructure, IT use,
and project management
A lack of IT governance can be dangerous, as evidenced by
three well-publicized IT project failures in Australia:
– Sydney Water’s Customer Relationship Management
System,
– RMIT Academic Management System, and
– One.Tel’s billing system
Importance of IT Governance
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 15
If the organisation has a negative attitude toward IT, it will be
difficult for an IT project to succeed
Having a Chief Information Officer (CIO) at a high level in the
organisation helps IT projects
Assigning non-IT people to IT projects and increase
involvement from end users may also encourage more
commitment
Need for Organisational Commitment to
Information Technology (IT)
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 16
Standards and guidelines help project managers be more
effective
Senior management can encourage
– the use of standard forms and software for project
management
– the development and use of guidelines for writing project
plans or providing status information
– the creation of a project management office or center of
excellence
Need for Organisational Standards
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 17
Video 3:
Learning Objectives
Understand the concept of a project phase and the project
life cycle, and distinguish between project development and
product development
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 18
A project life cycle is a collection of project phases that defines
– what work will be performed in each phase
– what deliverables will be produced and when
– who is involved in each phase, and
– how management will control and approve work produced
in each phase
A deliverable is a product or service produced or provided as
part of a project
Project Phases and the Project Life Cycle
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 19
In early phases of a project life cycle
– resource needs are usually lowest
– the level of uncertainty (risk) is highest
– project stakeholders have the greatest opportunity to
influence the project
In middle phases of a project life cycle
– the certainty of completing a project improves
– more resources are needed
The final phase of a project life cycle focuses on
– ensuring that project requirements were met
– the sponsor approves completion of the project
More on Project Phases
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 20
A project should successfully pass through each of the project
phases in order to continue on to the next
Management reviews, also called phase exits or kill points,
should occur after each phase to evaluate the project’s
progress, likely success, and continued compatibility with
organisational goals
The Importance of Project Phases and
Management Reviews
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 21
Phases of the Traditional Project Life Cycle
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 22
Project Life Cycle (PLC) and Systems
Development Life Cycles
Define
Project
Goad
Plan
Project
Execute
Project
Close
Project
Evaluate
Project
Ref: Marchewka, J… (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (5e) Wiley
Planning
Analysis
Design
Implemen-
tation
Mainte-
nance &
Support
23
Project Life Cycle
System
Development Life
Cycle
Products also have life cycles
The Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a framework
for describing the phases involved in developing and
maintaining information systems
Systems development projects can follow
– Predictive life cycle: the scope of the project can be
clearly articulated and the schedule and cost can be
predicted
– Adaptive Software Development (ASD) life cycle:
requirements cannot be clearly expressed, projects are
mission driven and component based, using time-based
cycles to meet target dates
Product Life Cycles
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 24
Waterfall model: has well-defined, linear stages of systems
development and support
Spiral model: shows that software is developed using an
iterative or spiral approach rather than a linear approach
Incremental build model: provides for progressive
development of operational software
Prototyping model: used for developing prototypes to clarify
user requirements
Rapid Application Development (RAD) model: used to
produce systems quickly without sacrificing quality
Predictive Life Cycle Models
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 25
Waterfall and Spiral Life Cycle Models
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 26
Examples of ASD:
– extreme programming, feature driven development,
dynamic systems development model, scrum, etc
Agile software development has become popular to describe
new approaches that focus on close collaboration between
programming teams and business experts
We will talk a bit more on agile methodology in the next video
and also in Lecture 11.
Agile Software Development
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 27
Video 4:
Learning Objectives
Discuss the unique attributes and diverse nature of IT
projects
Describe recent trends affecting IT project management,
including globalization, outsourcing, virtual teams, and agile
project management
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 28
IT projects can be very diverse in terms of size, complexity,
products produced, application area, and resource requirements
IT project team members often have diverse backgrounds and
skill sets
IT projects use diverse technologies that change rapidly. Even
within one technology area, people must be highly specialized
The Context of IT Projects
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 29
Globalization
Outsourcing:
– Outsourcing is when an organisation acquires goods
and/or sources from an outside source.
– Offshoring is sometimes used to describe outsourcing
from another country
Virtual teams: A virtual team is a group of individuals who
work across time and space using communication
technologies
Agile project management
Recent Trends Affecting IT Project Management
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 30
Issues
– Communications
– Trust
– Common work practices
– Tools
Suggestions
– Employ greater project discipline
– Think global but act local
– Consider collaboration over standardisation
– Keep project momentum going
– Use newer tools and technology
Important Issues and Suggestions Related to
Globalization
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 31
Organisations remain competitive by using outsourcing to their
advantage, such as finding ways to reduce costs
Their next challenge is to make strategic IT investments with
outsourcing by improving their enterprise architecture to ensure
that IT infrastructure and business processes are integrated
and standardised
Project managers should become more familiar with
negotiating contracts and other outsourcing issues
Outsourcing
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 32
Increasing competiveness and responsiveness by having a
team of workers available 24/7
Lowering costs because many virtual workers do not require
office space or support beyond their home offices.
Providing more expertise and flexibility by having team
members from across the globe working any time of day or
night
Increasing the work/life balance for team members by
eliminating fixed office hours and the need to travel to work.
Virtual Teams Advantages
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 33
Isolating team members
Increasing the potential for communications problems
Reducing the ability for team members to network and transfer
information informally
Increasing the dependence on technology to accomplish work
Some of the factors that help virtual teams succeed:
– team processes,
– trust/relationships,
– leadership style, and
– team member selection
Virtual Team Disadvantages
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 34
Agile Project Management
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 35
Agile means being able to move quickly but does project
management allow for that?
Early software development projects often used a waterfall
approach. However, this is becoming a challenge.
Agile uses a method based on iterative and incremental
development, in which requirements and solutions evolve
through collaboration.
But, what about the triple constraint?
See the Resources tab from www.pmtexts.com for more info
http://www.pmtexts.com/
Many seasoned experts in project management warn people
not to fall for the hype associated with Agile.
For example, J. Leroy Ward, Executive Vice President at ESI
International, said that
“Agile will be seen for what it is … and isn’t….Project
management organisations embracing Agile software and
product development approaches will continue to grow while
being faced with the challenge of demonstrating ROI
through Agile adoption.”*
Agile Makes Sense for Some Projects…,
But Not All
*J. Leroy Ward, “The Top Ten Project Management Trends for 2011,” projecttimes.com
(January 24, 2011).
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 36
Video 5:
Learning Objectives
Discuss what is the manifesto for Agile Software
Development
Understanding Agile project management
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 30
In February 2001, a group of 17 people that called itself the
Agile Alliance developed and agreed on the Manifesto for Agile
Software Development, as follows:
“We are uncovering better ways of developing software by
doing it and helping others do it. Through this work we have
come to value:
– Individuals and interactions over processes and tools
– Working software over comprehensive documentation
– Customer collaboration over contract negotiation
– Responding to change over following a plan”*
Manifesto for Agile Software Development
*Agile Manifesto, www.agilemanifesto.org.
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 38
What exactly is Agile Project Management?
Process by which projects can be managed and implemented
in small deliverables.
Deliver value to the business in frequent small deliveries of
product called features
Recommended when business needs are frequently
changing or when the business wants to receive product
benefits earlier
Items are created in small logical chunks of work called
iterations or sprints.
Agile Project Management
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 39
Sprints are normally 4 – 12 weeks long
Communication is critical – Face-to-face is encouraged
Teams should be co-located (or at least virtually)
100% Sponsor commitment
Changes to requirements are anticipated and accommodated
As with traditional approach:
– Having a vision for the end goal
– Clear understanding of the requirements
– Follow a universally accepted project lifecycle
– A dedicated team…and communication..communication..
Characteristics of Agile Projects
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 40
The Agile Lifecycle
41
Scrum
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 42
What is Scrum?
The leading agile development method for completing projects
with a complex, innovative scope of work.
The term was coined in 1986 in a Harvard Business Review
study
Scrum was initially applied to software development projects, but
today other types of projects use this technique
Watch the Axosoft video “Scrum in 10 Minutes,” by Hamid
Shojaee, an experienced software developer
Scrum Framework
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 43
Technique that can be used in conjunction with scrum
Developed in Japan by Toyota Motor Corporation
Uses visual cues to guide workflow
Kanban cards show new work, work in progress, and work
completed
Kanban
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 44