程序代做CS代考 flex AI algorithm Hive Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence
Chapter 1
Chapter 1 1

♦ What is AI?
♦ A brief history
♦ The state of the art
Outline
Chapter 1 2

What is AI?
Systems that think like humans Systems that think rationally Systems that act like humans Systems that act rationally
Chapter 1 3

Acting humanly: The Turing test
Turing (1950) “Computing machinery and intelligence”:
♦ “Can machines think?” −→ “Can machines behave intelligently?”
♦ Operational test for intelligent behavior: the Imitation Game
HUMAN
INTERROGATOR ?
♦ Predicted that by 2000, a machine might have a 30% chance of fooling a lay person for 5 minutes
♦ Anticipated all major arguments against AI in following 50 years
♦ Suggested major components of AI: knowledge, reasoning, language
understanding, learning
Problem: Turing test is not reproducible, constructive, or amenable to mathematical analysis
AI SYSTEM
HUMAN
Chapter 1 4

Thinking humanly: Cognitive Science
1960s “cognitive revolution”: information-processing psychology replaced prevailing orthodoxy of behaviorism
Requires scientific theories of internal activities of the brain – What level of abstraction? “Knowledge” or “circuits”? – How to validate? Requires
1) Predicting and testing behavior of human subjects (top-down) or 2) Direct identification from neurological data (bottom-up)
Both approaches (roughly, Cognitive Science and Cognitive Neuroscience) are now distinct from AI
Both share with AI the following characteristic:
the available theories do not explain (or engender) anything resembling human-level general intelligence
Hence, all three fields share one principal direction!
Chapter 1 5

Thinking rationally: Laws of Thought
Normative (or prescriptive) rather than descriptive
Aristotle: what are correct arguments/thought processes?
Several Greek schools developed various forms of logic: notation and rules of derivation for thoughts;
may or may not have proceeded to the idea of mechanization Direct line through mathematics and philosophy to modern AI
Problems:
1) Not all intelligent behavior is mediated by logical deliberation
2) What is the purpose of thinking? What thoughts should I have
out of all the thoughts (logical or otherwise) that I could have?
Chapter 1 6

Acting rationally
Rational behavior: doing the right thing
The right thing: that which is expected to maximize goal achievement,
given the available information
Doesn’t necessarily involve thinking—e.g., blinking reflex—but thinking should be in the service of rational action
Aristotle (Nicomachean Ethics):
Every art and every inquiry, and similarly every action and pursuit, is thought to aim at some good
Chapter 1 7

Rational agents
An agent is an entity that perceives and acts
This course is about designing rational agents
Abstractly, an agent is a function from percept histories to actions:
f : P∗ → A
For any given class of environments and tasks, we seek the
agent (or class of agents) with the best performance
Caveat: computational limitations make perfect rationality unachievable
→ design best program for given machine resources
Chapter 1 8

Philosophy
logic, methods of reasoning
mind as physical system
foundations of learning, language, rationality
formal representation and proof
algorithms, computation, (un)decidability, (in)tractability probability
adaptation
phenomena of perception and motor control experimental techniques (psychophysics, etc.)
formal theory of rational decisions
knowledge representation
grammar
plastic physical substrate for mental activity
homeostatic systems, stability
simple optimal agent designs
Mathematics
Psychology
Economics Linguistics
Neuroscience Control theory
AI prehistory
Chapter 1 9

Potted history of AI
1943 McCulloch & Pitts: Boolean circuit model of brain
1950 Turing’s “Computing Machinery and Intelligence” 1952–69 Look, Ma, no hands!
1950s Early AI programs, including Samuel’s checkers program,
Newell & Simon’s Logic Theorist, Gelernter’s Geometry Engine 1956 Dartmouth meeting: “Artificial Intelligence” adopted
1965 Robinson’s complete algorithm for logical reasoning
1966–74 AI discovers computational complexity
Neural network research almost disappears
1969–79 Early development of knowledge-based systems
1980–88 Expert systems industry booms
1988–93 Expert systems industry busts: “AI Winter”
1985–95 Neural networks return to popularity
1988– Resurgence of probability; general increase in technical depth
“Nouvelle AI”: ALife, GAs, soft computing 1995– Agents, agents, everywhere . . .
2003– Human-level AI back on the agenda
Chapter 1 10

Which of the following can be done at present? ♦ Play a decent game of table tennis
State of the art
Chapter 1 11

Which of the following can be done at present?
♦ Play a decent game of table tennis
♦ Drive safely along a curving mountain road
State of the art
Chapter 1 12

Which of the following can be done at present?
♦ Play a decent game of table tennis
♦ Drive safely along a curving mountain road ♦ Drive safely along Telegraph Avenue
State of the art
Chapter 1 13

Which of the following can be done at present?
♦ Play a decent game of table tennis
♦ Drive safely along a curving mountain road ♦ Drive safely along Telegraph Avenue
♦ Buy a week’s worth of groceries on the web
State of the art
Chapter 1 14

Which of the following can be done at present?
State of the art
♦ Play a decent game of table tennis
♦ Drive safely along a curving mountain road
♦ Drive safely along Telegraph Avenue
♦ Buy a week’s worth of groceries on the web
♦ Buy a week’s worth of groceries at Berkeley Bowl
♦ Play a decent game of bridge
♦ Discover and prove a new mathematical theorem
♦ Design and execute a research program in molecular biology ♦ Write an intentionally funny story
♦ Give competent legal advice in a specialized area of law
Chapter 1 20

Unintentionally funny stories
One day Joe Bear was hungry. He asked his friend Irving Bird where some honey was. Irving told him there was a beehive in the oak tree. Joe threat- ened to hit Irving if he didn’t tell him where some honey was. The End.
Henry Squirrel was thirsty. He walked over to the river bank where his good friend Bill Bird was sitting. Henry slipped and fell in the river. Gravity drowned. The End.
Once upon a time there was a dishonest fox and a vain crow. One day the crow was sitting in his tree, holding a piece of cheese in his mouth. He noticed that he was holding the piece of cheese. He became hungry, and swallowed the cheese. The fox walked over to the crow. The End.
Chapter 1 26

Unintentionally funny stories
Joe Bear was hungry. He asked Irving Bird where some honey was. Irving refused to tell him, so Joe offered to bring him a worm if he’d tell him where some honey was. Irving agreed. But Joe didn’t know where any worms were, so he asked Irving, who refused to say. So Joe offered to bring him a worm if he’d tell him where a worm was. Irving agreed. But Joe didn’t know where any worms were, so he asked Irving, who refused to say. So Joe offered to bring him a worm if he’d tell him where a worm was …
Chapter 1 27

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