Processes: Extraction of Resources
Resources, Processes & Materials Engineering
Dr Masood Mostofi
Copyright By PowCoder代写 加微信 powcoder
Lecture focus
Reproduced from “Materials and Man’s Needs”, National Academy of Sciences, Washington D.C., 1974.
This Lecture
Drilling Eng Current Status
Drilling Engineering: Current Status
• Drilling offshore and onshore
• Drilling downward, drilling deviated/horizontal,
drilling upward
• Drilling wells of a few kilometres in 1-2 months
• Remote Control and Automation Drilling
Well = Borehole = Wellbore
http://rogermontgomery.com /
http://www.energyandresources.vic.gov.au/
Examples of Drilling: Deepest Well in the world
Kola Borehole:
• A research project in Soviet Union started at 1970.
• 12,262 m: the deepest artificial point in the world
• 24 years of drilling in Russia
• Research well rather petroleum well
• Drilling stopped due to unexpected temperature of
Deepest Well in the world!
Welded well head after scraping the project!
the wellbore exceeding 180° C.
• Thickness of crust is about 30 to 50 km.
https://en.wikipedia.org
Examples of Drilling: Longest Well in the world
• Measured depth of 12,344 m with horizontal departure of 11,475m
• Drilled in only 60 days by Exxon Mobil Corporation
• Onshore drilling enabling targeting about 10 km from the shore
http://petroleuminsights.blogspot.com.au/
http://www.subseaiq.com/
Application of Drilling Engineering
Petroleum Eng Mining Eng Geothermal (Oil & Gas) industry
https://archive.epa.gov/
Drilling Application: Oil and Gas
• Petroleum engineering: extraction of organic hydrocarbon resource
• Hydrocarbon: an organic compound entirely comprised of hydrogen and carbon.
https://energyeducation.ca/
• Hydrocarbon: the result of transformation (maturation) of organic materials into hydrocarbon under certain pressure and temperature condition.
• Source rock: maturing organic matters and producing hydrocarbon
• Hydrocarbon migration from source rock to reservoir rock
Drilling Application: Oil and Gas
• Hydrocarbons are stored in reservoir rocks: a rock which is porous
• Ratio of pore space over the total rock space is 0.05 – 0.3 (5-30%) – called porosity.
• The thickness of a reservoir rock filled with hydrocarbon is 5 to 100 m
• Drilling into reservoir rock facilitates draining hydrocarbons out of the reservoir
• Cost of drilling: few million dollars to a few hundred million dollars
• Well can be dry or wet!
• Average success rate calculated is 18% – in Australia [Jonasson (2011)]
Drilling Application: Oil and Gas
Cost of hydrocarbon production: back of the envelope calculations
Height of the hydrocarbon reserve = 10 m
Extend of hydrocarbon 10 km by 10 km
Porosity (ratio of pore volume over total rock volume) = 0.2
Assuming to withdraw 50% of all available hydrocarbon Assuming oil price to be $100 per barrel which is $625 per m3
× 𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓 × 𝟔𝟔𝟐𝟐𝟓𝟓 𝟑𝟑 = $𝟔𝟔. 𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 𝒗𝒗𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 𝑻𝑻𝒐𝒐 𝒓𝒓𝑻𝑻𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒗𝒗 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟑𝒗𝒗 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟑𝒗𝒗
𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒓𝒓𝑻𝑻𝒓𝒓𝑻𝑻𝒓𝒓𝒉𝒉𝑻𝑻𝒉𝒉 𝒗𝒗𝟑𝟑 = 𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 𝒗𝒗𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 𝑻𝑻𝒐𝒐 𝒓𝒓𝑻𝑻𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 (𝒗𝒗𝟑𝟑) × 𝑷𝑷𝑻𝑻𝒓𝒓𝒗𝒗 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒓𝒓𝑻𝑻𝒗𝒗
𝟗𝟗𝟖𝟖𝟑𝟑 =𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝒗𝒗𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝑻𝑻𝒐𝒐𝒓𝒓𝑻𝑻𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓×𝒔𝒔𝑻𝑻𝒓𝒓𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔𝒑𝒑𝑻𝑻𝒉𝒉=𝟏𝟏.𝟏𝟏×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ×𝟏𝟏.𝟐𝟐=𝟐𝟐×𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝒗𝒗$𝒗𝒗
𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 𝒗𝒗𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 𝑻𝑻𝒐𝒐 𝒓𝒓𝑻𝑻𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓
𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 𝒉𝒉𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝒓𝒓 𝒗𝒗𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 𝑻𝑻𝒐𝒐 𝒔𝒔𝒓𝒓𝑻𝑻𝒉𝒉𝒗𝒗𝒓𝒓𝑻𝑻𝒑𝒑𝑻𝑻𝒉𝒉 = 𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒓𝒓𝑻𝑻𝒓𝒓𝑻𝑻𝒉𝒉𝑻𝑻𝒉𝒉 𝒗𝒗𝟑𝟑
Drilling Application: Mining | Exploration
• Drilling in mineral exploration: to collect information about rocks (to be compared with oil and gas)
• Much higher number of wells (borehole) but shallower ( depth range is mostly 100 m to 2 km)
• Drilling is conducted using land rigs
• Exploration to find new mines
• Brown Field Exploration to track the ore body in an
existing mine
• Surface or underground drilling
Drilling Application: Mining | Exploration
Perth to Brisbane: 3,600 km Earth Circumference: 40,000 km
Drilling Application: Mining | In-situ Leaching
• Injection chemical (acid or alkaline solutions) to dissolve minerals and bring them to surface
• Also known as in situ recovery (ISR)
• 48% of global uranium mined
produced from in-situ leaching in
• Very popular in USA, Kazakhstan and
Uzbekistan and also in Australia,
China, and Russia.
• Cost effective and environmentally
acceptable method of mining
• Requires many drilling…
https://www.world-nuclear.org/
• A solution for accessing to deeper solutions where conventional mining is not effective
Drilling Application: Geothermal
• Accessing heat from underground
• Two applications: Geothermal Power Plan
& Geothermal Heat Pump
• In Geothermal Power Plan, water will be
converted to steam using heat from deep inside the Earth. Steam will be used to generate electricity
• In Geothermal Heat Pump, Earth will be used as a regulator of temperature for buildings.
• A good example: cooling down super computers (Perth)
https://archive.epa.gov/
Learning Outcome Check
Drilling onshore vs offshore
Impact of porosity on success of petroleum exploration In-situ leaching and its advantage
how geothermal wells can be used as a source of energy
Drilling Fundamentals – How we drill
Mostofi (2014)
Drilling Fundamentals – How we drill
• Drill bit
• Drillstring (drill pipe, drill collars)
• Drilling rig and its hoisting
• Drilling fluid circulation
• Rotation of drill string
Mostofi (2014)
Drilling Fundamentals – Drilling Techniques | Rotary
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3EUOafLYLH0&ab_channel= PYRAMIDGeo-Engineering%26Construction.
Drilling Fundamentals – Drilling Systems
• Three main systems in drilling are: rotary, circulating and hoisting
• Bit rotates, weight on bit applied, torque on bit provided, rock fragments, cuttings generated, cuttings transported to surface by drilling fluid (hole cleaning), drill string weight increases by depth, drill string is supported by the hosting system
• Tripping to change the bit
• Drilling to increase the hole depth
Drilling Fundamentals – Drilling Systems | Rotation
• Rotary system to rotate the drill string and bit
• The main component is the top drive
• The top drive holds the drillstring in place and
rotates the entire drill string with speeds of 50 – 300 revolution per minute (RPM)
Drilling Fundamentals – Drilling Systems | Circulation
• Circulation system to circulate the mud to transport the cuttings to surface
• Main components are drilling fluid and mud pumps
• Drilling fluid is contained in mud tanks
of 5– 10 𝑚𝑚 for shallow wells
• Volume of drilling fluid is the range
and 100 – 500 𝑚𝑚 for deeper holes
(mostly mining and coal seam gas)
(mostly oil and gas)
Drilling Fundamentals – Drilling Systems | Hoisting
• Hoisting system to move the drill string up or down.
• Main component is draw-work which is a motor driving a crane like system
• Hoisting system consumes energy mainly during tripping
• Tripping is pulling the drill string out of the well one by one to change bit
drillstring
Drilling Fundamentals – Drill String
• Lengthofdrillpipes(3m–10m)
• Connecting pipes together
• Duration of making a connection (1-15 min) • TwoOperations:
• Drilling:
Increasing hole depth
• Tripping:
Changing the bit by pulling all the pipes out (few hours to 1-2 days)
Drilling Fundamentals – Monitoring and Automation
• Collecting all important data from different places of the rig.
• Providing real time reports to key people on site and drilling engineers office. (Rate of penetration, weight on bit, torque on bit, drilling fluid loss, etc.)
http://www.weatherford.com/
Drilling in oil and gas is typically between 100 m to 500 m:
a) True b) False
To produce hydrocarbon, the target is:
Reservoir rock Source Rock
a) True a) False
Number of wells drilled in mining is small
Drilling Engineering Application: Power Consumption
Main Energy consumption systems of rotary drilling: • Rotary system rotates the drill string (only during
• Circulate the mud (only during drilling) • Hoisting (only during tripping)
• Under drilling mode the hoisting system uses minimum amount of energy
Drilling Engineering Application: Drilling and Tripping
Move drill string up and down
Circulation of drilling fluid
Rotating drill string
Drilling Engineering Application: Power Consumption
Case Study:
• Drilling Rig Century Rig 27 drilled a 4,575 m ( hole name Whicher Range 4)
• Hoisting system power: 1200 kW
• Circulation system (mud pumps): 2000 kW
• Rotary system (top drive): 750 kW Calculate:
Available power = 3500 kW
• Total power consumption While Drilling: ?
• Total power consumption while tripping: ?
• Compare the power consumptions with a
home air condition unit 4kW.
http://www.epa.wa.gov.au/ 30
Learning Outcome Check
Role of hoisting and rotary systems
Tripping vs drilling
How often circulation system is active, and why.
Power consumption of the hoisting system during drilling operation
Engineering Applications
http://www.epa.wa.gov.au/ 32
Drilling Engineering Application: Power Consumption
Case Study continues:
Power is provided by diesel generators (power pack)
Mechanical power
Electrical power
Hoisting system Rotary system Circulating system
• Fuel consumed by diesel motors to produce mechanical power
• Themechanicalpowerconvertedtoelectricityviagenerator
• The produced power by the generator will be distributed to different system for the rig
operation.
• Main three power consuming systems are rotary, hoisting and circulating
Drilling Engineering Application: Power Consumption
Case Study continues:
Efficiency from diesel to electric power:
Output Power
Drilling: 2750kW Tripping: 1200kW
Input Power Fuel consumption rate
𝑄𝑄 = 𝑚𝑚̇ × 𝐻𝐻
Heat energy
Electrical power
Drilling Engineering Application: Power Consumption
Case Study continue:
• Calculate the Fuel consumption rate while drilling (2,750 kW) assuming efficiency of 28%, and heat
energy of diesel is equal to 40 MJ/lit
𝜂𝜂 = 𝑄𝑄𝑅𝑅 𝑄𝑄 = 2750 = 9821.4𝑘𝑘𝑊𝑊 = 9.821𝑅𝑅𝑊𝑊 0.28 𝐽𝐽 𝐽𝐽
𝑄𝑄=𝑚𝑚̇ ×𝐻𝐻 9.821×106𝑠𝑠=𝑚𝑚̇ ×40×106𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑚𝑚̇ =9.821×106𝑠𝑠𝐽𝐽=0.24𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
40×10 𝐽𝐽 𝑠𝑠 6 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑚𝑚̇ =0.24𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙× 60𝑠𝑠 ×60𝑚𝑚𝑙𝑙𝑚𝑚×24h𝑟𝑟× 1𝑚𝑚3 =21.21 𝑚𝑚3 𝑠𝑠 1 𝑚𝑚𝑙𝑙𝑚𝑚 1 h𝑟𝑟 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1000 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Comparison: A sedan’s fuel capacity is approx. 60 Lit 21.21 𝑚𝑚3 = 21.21 × 103 𝐿𝐿𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 ≈ 353 Sedan fuel tanks
Drilling Engineering Application: Drilling Fluid
Roles of drilling fluid:
• Drilling fluid has different roles in drilling
• Some of these roles are:
• Hole cleaning: carrying the cuttings to the surface (fluid velocity and viscosity).
• Wellbore stability: to keep the borehole open during and after drilling
• Fluid loss control: to minimise fluid being lost into fractures and formations
• Drill string lubrication: decreasing friction between drill string and wellbore
• Cool down drill bit
Drilling Engineering Application: Drilling Fluid | Types
Oil in water emulsion
Water Based Drilling Fluid
Oil in water emulsion
Oil Based Drilling Fluid
Synthetic Drilling Fluid
Water in oil emulsion
Air and Foam
Water in oil emulsion
http://nsb.wikidot.com/
Drilling Fluid
Drilling Engineering Application: Drilling Fluid | Composition
• Water base mud is the most common drilling fluid
• Water base mud composition: water + additives
• Additives : to control density and viscosity of drilling fluid
• Density is important for borehole stability
• Viscosity is important for borehole stability, hole
cleaning and fluid loss control
Effect of viscosity on hole stability
Drilling Engineering Application: Drilling Fluid | Borehole stability
Borehole (Wellbore) stability:
• provide sufficient hydrostatic pressure to provide
mechanical stability
• To have minimum reaction with formation
• Reaction with formation
decreases strength of rock borehole instability
Drilling Mechanics Group – Curtin University
Drilling Engineering Application: Drilling Fluid | Density
• Bottom hole pressure can be increased by increasing density of mud.
• Borehole can be stabilised (mechanically) by providing sufficient bottom hole pressure
• Suspended solid particles are often used to increase the density of mud
• Pressure is calculated from:
𝑅𝑅(𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑) = 𝜌𝜌(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘) × 𝑘𝑘(𝑚𝑚) × h(𝑚𝑚) 𝑚𝑚3 𝑠𝑠2
Drilling Engineering Application: Drilling Fluid | Density
• Borehole can be stabilised (mechanically) by providing sufficient bottom hole pressure
• Hydrostatic pressure increases with depth
• Higher confining pressure (mud pressure) provided by increasing mud weight
𝑅𝑅(𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑) = 𝜌𝜌(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘) × 𝑘𝑘(𝑚𝑚) × h(𝑚𝑚)
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑 =1000 ×9.8 ×5000𝑚𝑚
Depth = 5 km
= 49×106𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑 = 49𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑
Drilling Engineering Application: Drilling Fluid | Density Selection
• Available mud pressure with 1000 kg/m3 mud @ 8 km= 78.48 MPa
• Assume required mud pressure @ 8 km is 100 MPa
• What should be the mud density and the plot of mud pressure
versus depth:
100 MPa is required
Drilling Engineering Application: Drilling Fluid | Density Adjustment
• Barite is an additive typically added to increase the mud weight
• Mud Density is the ratio of mass of mud components on volume of
mud components
Barite (weighting agent) Polymer (viscosifier)
𝜌𝜌 = 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = Σ𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 + 𝑚𝑚𝑏𝑏𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 + 𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 Σ𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 + 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 + 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
Drilling Engineering Application: Drilling Fluid | Density Adjustment
Calculate the density of a mixture of made of 300 kg of barite (density of 4200 kg/m3), 2 kg of
polymer (density of 3000 kg/m3), and 1 m3 of water.
Barite (weighting agent)
Total Mass = 1302 kg
Total Volume = 1.072 m3
Density = 1214 kg/m 𝑅𝑅 Σ𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 + 𝑚𝑚
Polymer agent (Viscosifier)
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 Σ𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 + 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 + 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
𝜌𝜌 =3 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑚𝑚 = 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
𝑏𝑏𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
Drilling Engineering Application: Drilling Fluid |Hole cleaning
Hole cleaning (Cutting transportation):
• Effective transportation of cuttings to surface is
hole cleaning.
• Sufficient fluid velocity and viscosity to transport
the cuttings to surface
• Consequence of poor hole cleaning: slower
• Link to fluid mechanics and drilling engineering (viscosity, flow rate, flow regimes, etc.)
effect of particle size
particle size
minimum flow rate
Drilling Engineering Application: Drilling Fluid | Hole cleaning & Viscosity
• Increase of minimum fluid velocity with increase of particle size
• Fluid velocity will be converted to flow rate (engineering application)
• The relationship between minimum fluid velocity and particle size is function of particle size
• Higher the viscosity, the transportation of cuttings is easier lower minimum fluid velocity
effect of drilling fluid viscosity
lower viscosity
higher viscosity
Flow rate (𝑚𝑚3) 𝑠𝑠
particle size
Fluid velocity (𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠) 𝑞𝑞 = 𝑣𝑣 × 𝐴𝐴
2 Crosssectionarea(𝑚𝑚 )
minimum fluid velocity
Drilling Engineering Application: Drilling Fluid | Viscosity Adjustment
• A common engineering unit for viscosity is centipoise (cp)
• Viscosity can be increased by adding polymers to drilling fluid
• Higher the concentration of polymer, higher the value of viscosity
• The amount of polymer added is recorded in polymer concentration (weight/lit or weight/weight): numerator is polymer and denominator is water.
Variation of drilling fluid viscosity
higher viscosity
Polymer concentration(%)
Viscosity (cp)
Learning Outcome Check
Roles of drilling fluid
How viscosity and mud density is important properties of mud
Cutting transportation controlled by size of cutting and impact of viscosity Practical methods to increase the density and role of viscosity
Drilling Engineering
Thank You! Any questions:
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