CS计算机代考程序代写 flex Excel Hive PowerPoint Presentation

PowerPoint Presentation

Information Technology

FIT2002

IT Project Management

Lecture 8

Project Quality and Procurement

Management

Video 1: Project Quality Management

Learning Objectives

 Define project quality management and understand how

quality relates to various aspects of IT projects

 Describe quality management planning and how quality and

scope management are related

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 2

What Is Project Quality?

 The International Organisation for Standardization (ISO) defines

quality as “the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics

fulfils requirements” (ISO9000:2000)

 Other experts define quality based on:

– Conformance to requirements: The project’s processes

and products meet written specifications

– Fitness for use: A product can be used as it was intended

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 3

What Is Project Quality Management?

 Project quality management ensures that the project will satisfy

the needs for which it was undertaken

 Processes include:

– Planning quality management: Identifying which quality

standards are relevant to the project and how to satisfy

them; a metric is a standard of measurement

– Performing quality assurance: Periodically evaluating

overall project performance to ensure the project will satisfy

the relevant quality standards

– Performing quality control: Monitoring specific project

results to ensure that they comply with the relevant quality

standards

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 4

Project Quality Management Summary

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 5

Planning Quality

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 6

 Implies the ability to anticipate situations and prepare actions

to bring about the desired outcome

 Important to prevent defects by:

– Selecting proper materials

– Training and indoctrinating people in quality

– Planning a process that ensures the appropriate outcome

 Design of experiments – a technique that helps identify which

variables have the most influence on the overall outcome of a

process

Scope Aspects of IT Projects

 Functionality is the degree to which a system performs its

intended function

 Features are the system’s special characteristics that appeal to

users

 System outputs are the screens and reports the system

generates

 Performance addresses how well a product or service performs

the customer’s intended use

 Reliability is the ability of a product or service to perform as

expected under normal conditions

 Maintainability addresses the ease of performing maintenance

on a product
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 7

Video 2: Project Quality Management

Learning Objectives

 Discuss the importance of quality assurance

 Summarise the contributions of noteworthy

quality experts to modern quality

management

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 8

Performing Quality Assurance

 Quality assurance includes all the activities related to satisfying the

relevant quality standards for a project

 Another goal of quality assurance is continuous quality improvement.

Kaizen is the Japanese word for improvement or change for the better

 Lean involves evaluating processes to maximize customer value while

minimizing waste

 Benchmarking generates ideas for quality improvements by comparing

specific project practices or product characteristics to those of other

projects or products within or outside the performing organisation

 A quality audit is a structured review of specific quality management

activities that help identify lessons learned that could improve

performance on current or future projects
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 9

Modern Quality Management

 Modern quality management:

– Requires customer satisfaction

– Prefers prevention to inspection

– Recognizes management responsibility for quality

 Noteworthy quality experts include Deming, Juran, Crosby,

Ishikawa, Taguchi, and Feigenbaum

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 10

Quality Experts

 Deming was famous for his work in rebuilding Japan and his 14
Points for Management

 Juran wrote the Quality Control Handbook and ten steps to
quality improvement

 Crosby wrote Quality is Free and suggested that organisations
strive for zero defects

 Ishikawa developed the concepts of quality circles and fishbone
diagrams

 Taguchi developed methods for optimizing the process of
engineering experimentation

 Feigenbaum developed the concept of total quality control

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 11

ISO Standards

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 12

 ISO 9000 is a quality system standard that:

– Is a three-part, continuous cycle of planning, controlling,

and documenting quality in an organisation

– Provides minimum requirements needed for an organisation

to meet its quality certification standards

– Helps organisations around the world reduce costs and

improve customer satisfaction

 ISO offer standards to provide a framework for the assessment

of software processes

 See www.iso.org for more information

Improving Information Technology Project

Quality

 Several suggestions for improving quality for IT projects include:

– Establish leadership that promotes quality

– Understand the cost of quality

– Focus on organisational influences and workplace

factors that affect quality

– Follow maturity models

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 13

Leadership

 As Joseph M. Juran said in 1945, “It is most important that top

management be quality-minded. In the absence of sincere

manifestation of interest at the top, little will happen below”*

 A large percentage of quality problems are associated with

management, not technical issues.

*American Society for Quality (ASQ), (www.asqc.org/about/history/juran.html).

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 14

The Cost of Quality

 The cost of quality is the cost of conformance plus the cost of
nonconformance

– Conformance means delivering products that meet
requirements and fitness for use

– Cost of nonconformance means taking responsibility for
failures or not meeting quality expectations

 A study reported that software bugs cost the U.S. economy
$59.6 billion each year and that one third of the bugs could be
eliminated by an improved testing infrastructure

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 15

Five Cost Categories Related to Quality

 Prevention cost: Cost of planning and executing a project so it

is error-free or within an acceptable error range

 Appraisal cost: Cost of evaluating processes and their outputs

to ensure quality

 Internal failure cost: Cost incurred to correct an identified defect

before the customer receives the product

 External failure cost: Cost that relates to all errors not detected

and corrected before delivery to the customer

 Measurement and test equipment costs: Capital cost of

equipment used to perform prevention and appraisal activities

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 16

Organisational Influences, Workplace Factors,

and Quality

 Study by DeMarco and Lister showed that organizational issues

had a much greater influence on programmer productivity than

the technical environment or programming languages

 Study found no correlation between productivity and

programming language, years of experience, or salary.

 A dedicated workspace and a quiet work environment were key

factors to improving programmer productivity

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 17

Maturity Models

 Maturity models are frameworks for helping organisations

improve their processes and systems

– The Software Quality Function Deployment Model

focuses on defining user requirements and planning

software projects

– The Software Engineering Institute’s Capability Maturity

Model Integration is a process improvement approach that

provides organisations with the essential elements of

effective processes

– CMMI levels, from lowest to highest, are:

Incomplete  Performed  Managed  Defined 

Quantitatively Managed  Optimizing

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 18

PMI’s Maturity Model

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 19

 PMI released the Organisational Project Management Maturity

Model (OPM3) in December 2003

 Help organizations assess and improve their project

management capabilities

 Addresses standards for excellence in project, program, and

portfolio management best practices and explains the

capabilities necessary to achieve those best practices

Video 3: Project Quality Management

Learning Objectives

 Understand the tools and techniques for quality control,

such as the Seven Basic Tools of Quality, statistical

sampling, Six Sigma, and testing

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 20

Controlling Quality

 The main outputs of quality control are:

– Acceptance decisions

– Rework

– Process adjustments

 There are Seven Basic Tools of Quality that help in performing

quality control

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 21

Cause-and-Effect Diagrams

 Cause-and-effect diagrams trace complaints about quality

problems back to the responsible production operations

 They help you find the root cause of a problem

 Also known as fishbone or Ishikawa diagrams

 Can also use the 5 whys technique where you repeated ask the

question “Why” (five is a good rule of thumb) to peel away the

layers of symptoms that can lead to the root cause

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 22

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 23

Sample Cause-and-Effect Diagram

Quality Control Charts
 A control chart is a graphic display of data that illustrates the

results of a process over time

 The main use of control charts is to prevent defects, rather than

to detect or reject them

 Quality control charts allow you to determine whether a process

is in control or out of control

– When a process is in control, any variations in the results of

the process are created by random events; processes that

are in control do not need to be adjusted

– When a process is out of control, variations in the results of

the process are caused by non-random events; you need to

identify the causes of these events and adjust the process to

correct or eliminate them
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 24

Sample Quality Control Chart

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 25

seven run rule: If seven data points in a row are all below

the mean, above the mean, or are all increasing or

decreasing, then the process needs to be examined for

non-random problems

Check sheet

 A check sheet is used to collect and analyse data

 It is sometimes called a tally sheet or checklist, depending on its

format

 This information might be useful in improving the process for

handling complaints

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 26

In this example, most complaints

arrive via text message, and there are

more complaints on Monday and

Tuesday than on other days of the

week

Scatter diagram

 A scatter diagram helps to show if there is a relationship

between two variables

 The closer data points are to the ‘line of best fit’, the more closely

the two variables are related

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 27

Histograms

 A histogram is a bar graph of a distribution of variables

 Each bar represents an attribute or characteristic of a problem or

situation, and the height of the bar represents its frequency

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 28

Pareto Charts

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 29

 A Pareto chart is a histogram that can help you identify and

prioritize problem areas

 Pareto analysis is also called the 80-20 rule, meaning that 80

percent of problems are often due to 20 percent of the causes

Flowcharts

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 30

 Flowcharts are graphic displays of the logic and flow of

processes that help you analyse how problems occur and how

processes can be improved

 They show

activities,

decision points

and the order

of how information

is processed

Run Charts

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 31

 In addition to flowcharts, run charts are also used for

stratification, a technique that shows data from a variety of

sources to see if a pattern emerges

 A run chart displays the history and pattern of variation of a

process over time.

 To perform trend analysis and forecast future outcomes based

on historical results

Statistical Sampling

 Statistical sampling involves choosing part of a population of

interest for inspection

 The size of a sample depends on how representative you want

the sample to be

 Sample size formula:

Sample size = .25 X (certainty factor/acceptable error)2

 Be sure to consult with an expert when using statistical analysis

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 32

Six Sigma

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 33

*Pande, Peter S., Robert P. Neuman, and Roland R. Cavanagh, The

Six Sigma Way, New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000, p. xi.

 Six Sigma is “a comprehensive and flexible system for

achieving, sustaining, and maximizing business success. Six

Sigma is uniquely driven by close understanding of customer

needs, disciplined use of facts, data, and statistical analysis, and

diligent attention to managing, improving, and reinventing

business processes”*

 The target for perfection is the achievement of no more than 3.4

defects per million opportunities (DPMO)

 The principles can apply to a wide variety of processes

 Six Sigma projects normally follow a five-phase improvement

process called DMAIC

DMAIC

 DMAIC is a systematic, closed-loop process for continued

improvement that is scientific and fact based

 DMAIC stands for:

– Define: Define the problem/opportunity, process, and

customer requirements

– Measure: Define measures, then collect, compile, and

display data

– Analyse: Scrutinise process details to find improvement

opportunities

– Improve: Generate solutions and ideas for improving the

problem

– Control: Track and verify the stability of the improvements

and the predictability of the solution
Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 34

Six 9s of Quality

 Six 9s of quality is a measure of quality control equal to 1 fault

in 1 million opportunities

 In the telecommunications industry, it means 99.9999 percent

service availability or 30 seconds of down time a year

 This level of quality has also been stated as the target goal for

the number of errors in a communications circuit, system failures,

or errors in lines of code

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 35

Testing

 Many IT professionals think of

testing as a stage that comes

near the end of IT product

development

 Testing should be done

during almost every phase of

the IT product development

life cycle

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 36

Testing Tasks in the Software

Development Life Cycle

Types of Tests

 Unit testing tests each individual component (often a program)

to ensure it is as defect-free as possible

 Integration testing occurs between unit and system testing to

test functionally grouped components

 System testing tests the entire system as one entity

 User acceptance testing is an independent test performed by

end users prior to accepting the delivered system

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 37

Testing Alone Is Not Enough

 Watts S. Humphrey, a renowned expert on software quality,

defines a software defect as anything that must be changed

before delivery of the program

 Testing does not sufficiently prevent software defects because:

– The number of ways to test a complex system is huge

– Users will continue to invent new ways to use a system that

its developers never considered

 Humphrey suggests that people rethink the software

development process to provide no potential defects when you

enter system testing; developers must be responsible for

providing error-free code at each stage of testing

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 38

Video 4: Project Procurement Management

Learning Objectives

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 39

 Understand the importance of project procurement

management and the increasing use of outsourcing for

information technology (IT) projects

 Describe the work involved in planning procurements for

projects, including determining the proper type of contract

to use and preparing a procurement management plan

Importance of Project Procurement

Management

 Procurement means acquiring goods and/or services from an

outside source

 Other terms include purchasing and outsourcing

 Experts predict that global spending on computer software and

services will continue to grow

 People continue to debate whether offshore outsourcing helps

their own country or not

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 40

IT Outsourcing Market Continues to Grow

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 41

 Australian companies are transferring a lot of work abroad,

especially in the areas of IT infrastructure, application

development and maintenance, and innovation processes

 India, China, and the Philippines are the preferred locations for

outsourcing

 Besides cost savings, a shortage of qualified personnel are

reasons for global outsourcing of IT services

Why Outsource?

 To access skills and technologies

 To reduce both fixed and recurrent costs

 To allow the client organisation to focus on its core business

 To provide flexibility

 To increase accountability

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 42

Project Procurement Management Processes

 Project procurement management: Acquiring goods and
services for a project from outside the performing organisation

 Processes include:

– Planning procurement management: Determining what

to procure and when and how to do it

– Conducting procurements: Obtaining seller responses,
selecting sellers, and awarding contracts

– Controlling procurements: Managing relationships with sellers,

monitoring contract performance, and making changes as

needed

– Closing procurements: Completing and settling each contract

or agreement, including resolving of any open items

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 43

Project Procurement Management Summary

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 44

Planning Procurement Management

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 45

 Identifying which project needs can best be met by using

products or services outside the organisation

 Important decision – Make-or-buy decision

 If there is no need to buy any products or services from outside

the organisation, then there is no need to perform any of the

other procurement management processes

 Procurement Management Plan:

– Describes how the procurement processes will be

managed, from developing documentation for making

outside purchases or acquisitions to contract closure

– Contents varies based on project needs

Contracts

 A contract is a mutually binding agreement that obligates the

seller to provide the specified products or services and obligates

the buyer to pay for them

 Contracts can clarify responsibilities and sharpen focus on key

deliverables of a project

 Because contracts are legally binding, there is more

accountability for delivering the work as stated in the contract

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 46

Types of Contracts

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 47

 Different types of contracts can be used in different situations:

– Fixed price or lump sum contracts: Involve a fixed total price for

a well-defined product or service

• Firm-fixed-price (FFP), fixed-price incentive fee (FPI), Fixed-

price with economic price adjustment (FP-EPA)

– Cost reimbursable contracts: Involve payment to the seller for

direct and indirect costs

– Time and material contracts: Hybrid of both fixed price and cost

reimbursable contracts, often used by consultants

– Unit price contracts: Require the buyer to pay the seller a

predetermined amount per unit of service

 A single contract can actually include all four of these categories, if it

makes sense for that particular procurement

Point of Total Assumption

 The Point of Total Assumption (PTA) is the cost at which the

contractor assumes total responsibility for each additional dollar

of contract cost

 Contractors do not want to reach the point of total assumption,

because it hurts them financially, so they have an incentive to

prevent cost overruns

 The PTA is calculated with the following formula:

PTA = (ceiling price – target price)/government share + target cost

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 48

Ceiling price = $1,250

Target price = $1,100

Target cost = $1,000

Government share: 75%

PTA = ($1,250 – $1,100)/0.75 + $1,000 = $1,200

Cost Reimbursable Contracts

 Cost plus incentive fee (CPIF): The buyer pays the supplier

for allowable performance costs plus a predetermined fee and

an incentive bonus

 Cost plus fixed fee (CPFF): The buyer pays the supplier for

allowable performance costs plus a fixed fee payment usually

based on a percentage of estimated costs

 Cost plus percentage of costs (CPPC): The buyer pays the

supplier for allowable performance costs plus a predetermined

percentage based on total costs. This is the least desirable type

of contract from the buyer’s perspective.

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 49

Contract Types Versus Risk

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 50

Contract Clauses

 Contracts should include specific clauses to take into account

issues unique to the project

 Can require various educational or work experience for different

pay rights

 A termination clause is a contract clause that allows the buyer

or supplier to end the contract

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 51

Video 5: Project Procurement Management

Learning Objectives

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 52

 Discuss statement of work, source selection criteria, and

make-or-buy analysis

 Discuss how to conduct procurements and strategies for

obtaining seller responses, selecting sellers, and awarding

contracts

 Understand the process of controlling procurements by

managing procurement relationships and monitoring

contract performance

Tools and Techniques for Planning Purchases

and Acquisitions

 Expert judgment

 Market research

 Make-or-buy analysis: General management technique used to

determine whether an organisation should make or perform a

particular product or service inside the organisation or buy from

someone else

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 53

Make-or-Buy Example

 Assume you can lease an item you need for a project for

$800/day. To purchase the item, the cost is $12,000 plus a

daily operational cost of $400/day

 How long will it take for the purchase cost to be the same as

the lease cost?

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 54

Solution:

Let d = the number of days you need the piece of equipment

800d = $12,000 + 400d

400d = 12,000  d = 30

=> If you need the item for more than 30 days, it is more

economical to purchase

Contract Statement of Work (SOW)

 A statement of work is a description of the work required for the

procurement

 If a SOW is used as part of a contract to describe only the work

required for that particular contract, it is called a contract

statement of work

 A SOW is a type of scope statement

 A good SOW gives bidders a better understanding of the buyer’s

expectations

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 55

Statement of Work (SOW) Template

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 56

Procurement Documents

 Request for Proposals: Used to solicit proposals from

prospective sellers

– A proposal is a document prepared by a seller when

there are different approaches for meeting buyer

needs

 Requests for Quotes: Used to solicit quotes or bids from

prospective suppliers

– A bid, also called a tender or quote (short for

quotation), is a document prepared by sellers

providing pricing for standard items that have been

clearly defined by the buyer

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 57

Source Selection Criteria

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 58

 Source selection – evaluating proposals or bids from sellers,

choosing the best one, negotiating the contract, and awarding

the contract

 It’s important to prepare some form of evaluation criteria,

preferably before issuing a formal RFP or RFQ

 Beware of proposals that look good on paper; be sure to

evaluate factors, such as past performance and management

approach

 Can require a technical presentation as part of a proposal

Conducting Procurements

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 59

 Organisations can advertise to procure goods and services in

several ways:

– Approaching the preferred vendor

– Approaching several potential vendors

– Advertising to anyone interested

 Sending appropriate documentation to potential sellers

 Obtaining proposals or bids

 A bidders’ conference can help clarify the buyer’s expectations

 Shortlisted sellers may be asked to prepare a best and final offer

(BAFO).

 Selecting a seller

 Awarding a contract

Controlling Procurements

 Ensures that the seller’s performance meets contractual

requirements

 Contracts are legal relationships, so it is important that legal and

contracting professionals be involved in writing and administering

contracts

 It is critical that project managers and team members watch for

constructive change orders, which are oral or written acts or

omissions by someone with actual or apparent authority that can

be construed to have the same effect as a written change order

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 60

Change Control in Contracts

 Changes to any part of the project need to be reviewed,

approved, and documented by the same people in the same way

that the original part of the plan was approved

 Evaluation of any change should include an impact analysis.

 Changes must be documented in writing.

 Project managers and teams should stay closely involved to

make sure the new system will meet business needs

 Have backup plans

 Use tools and techniques, such as a contract change control

system, buyer-conducted performance reviews, inspections and

audits

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 61

Closing Procurements

Schwalbe, K.. (2015). Information Technology Project Management. (8e) Cengage Learning 62

 Contract closure involves completing and settling contracts and

resolving any open items

 The project team should:

 Determine if all work was completed correctly and

satisfactorily

 Update records to reflect final results

 Archive information for future use – using records

management system

 Procurement audits identify lessons learned

 The contract itself should include requirements for formal

acceptance and closure