代写代考 Introduction to Prolog

Introduction to Prolog
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Learning Outcomes

by the End of the Lecture, Students that Complete
the Recommended Exercises should be Able to:
Review Logical Inference and Describe the Structure of a Prolog Program Implement simple Rules, Facts, and Queries in Prolog Describe the Processes of Derivation and Unification
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Optional Reading Assignment
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Read the following Chapter(s): 1

Logical Programming Basics
Logical Programming is programming that Uses Relations and Inference
Inference is the Derivation of Logical Conclusions from Premises that are Assumed to be True
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Given a Rule… …and a Fact… …Conclude:

Given a Rule… …and a Fact: …Conclude:
“The Way that Affirms by Affirming”
If A is True, Then B is True A is True
“The Way that Denies by Denying”
If A is True, Then B is True B is False
A is False
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“If something is a car, then it has wheels. The vehicle outside is a car. Therefore, it has wheels.”
“Agelasts never fleer. Xanthippes are agelasts. Therefore Xanthippes never fleer.”
these are Correct applications of Copyright © 2018 by . All Rights Reserved.

“For something to be an insect, it must have six legs. This table has six legs. Therefore it is an insect.”
“If something is made of wood then it burns. Witches burn. Theferfore witches are made of wood.”
these are Incorrect applications of (a common Fallacy known as Affirming the Consequent)
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Logical Programming Logical Programming is Based on Tuples
consider that the Function for Squaring (which is also a Relation) is also an Infinite Set of Tuples
square = { (0,0), (1,1), (2, 4), (3,9), … }
through Abstraction it can be Written… square = (x, x2)
… and Using an Alias… square = (x, y) where y = x2
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Logical Programming
What is the Meaning of the statement “Xavier is Zeke’s Uncle”?
i.e., Under What Conditions is X an Uncle of Z?
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Logical Programming X is Z’s Uncle
(is logically equivalent to)
X is Y’s Brother  Y is Z’s Parent
(is logically equivalent to)
(X is Y’s Sibling  X is Male)  Y is Z’s Parent
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Logical Programming
Equivalence is Not the Same as Implication, but the Biconditional Equivalence means that when A is Equivalent to B, B Implies A (and Vice Versa)
X is Y’s Sibling  X is Male  Y is Z’s Parent Then
X is Z’s Uncle
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Logical Programming
uncleOf(X, Z) :- male(X), siblingOf(X,Y),
parentOf(Y,Z).
this is Prolog Syntax
it is an Implication Statement written with
Antecedent on the Right and Consequent on the Left
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PROgramming in LO Programs are Solutions to Problems that Involve Entities and Relationships
Programmer makes Logical Assertions*
* Assertions are Statements that a Fact or Rule is True
Programmer or User Asks a Query
Prolog Engine Attempts to Determine Values that Satisfy*
Introduction to Prolog
* Satisfaction means Cause to Evaluate to True Copyright © 2018 by . All Rights Reserved.

Programming Paradigms
with the Imperative* Programming Paradigm, the Fundamental Operation is Assignment
* (and Procedural, and Object-Oriented)
with the Functional Programming Paradigm, the Fundamental Operation is Reduction
with the Logical Programming Paradigm, the the Fundamental Operation is Satisfaction
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Introduction to Prolog
Rules are Assertions that are Conditionally True Facts are Assertions that are Unconditionally True
Queries are Questions Answered through Inference Using the Facts and Rules
Collections of Facts and Rules are Known as Knowledge Bases
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Introduction to Prolog
a Collection of Facts Written in Natural Language
John is a beatle.
Paul is a beatle. George is a beatle. Ringo is a beatle. John sings. John plays guitar. Paul sings. Paul plays base. George sings. George plays guitar. Ringo drums.
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Introduction to Prolog a Collection of Facts Written in Prolog
beatle(john).
beatle(paul). beatle(george). beatle(ringo). sings(john). sings(paul). sings(george). playsGuitar(john). playsGuitar(george). playsBase(paul). playsDrums(ringo).
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beatle(john).
beatle(paul). beatle(george). beatle(ringo). sings(john). sings(paul). sings(george). playsGuitar(john). playsGuitar(george). playsBase(paul). playsDrums(ringo).
| ?- playsGuitar(john). true.
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Introduction to Prolog

beatle(john).
beatle(paul). beatle(george). beatle(ringo). sings(john). sings(paul). sings(george). plays(john, guitar). plays(george, guitar). plays(paul, base). plays(ringo, drums).
| ?- plays(ringo, drums). true.
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Introduction to Prolog

beatle(john).
beatle(paul). beatle(george). beatle(ringo). sings(john). sings(paul). sings(george). plays(john, guitar). plays(george, guitar). plays(paul, base). plays(ringo, drums).
| ?- plays(ringo, ukelele). false.
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Introduction to Prolog

beatle(john).
beatle(paul). beatle(george). beatle(ringo). sings(john). sings(paul). sings(george). plays(john, guitar). plays(george, guitar). plays(paul, base). plays(ringo, drums).
| ?- dances(ringo).
ERROR: … Undefined Procedure: dances/1
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Introduction to Prolog

beatle(john).
beatle(paul). beatle(george). beatle(ringo). sings(john). sings(paul). sings(george). plays(john, guitar). plays(george, guitar). plays(paul, base). plays(ringo, drums).
| ?- eats(paul, meat).
ERROR: … Undefined Procedure: eats/2
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Introduction to Prolog

beatle(john).
beatle(paul). beatle(george). beatle(ringo). sings(john). sings(paul). sings(george). likesMusic(john) :- sings(john). likesMusic(paul) :- sings(paul). likesMusic(ringo) :- sings(ringo).
| ?- likesMusic(john). true.
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Introduction to Prolog

Introduction to Prolog
beatle(john).
beatle(paul).
beatle(george).
beatle(ringo).
sings(john).
plays(john, guitar).
plays(ringo, drums). reallyLikesMusic(john) :- sings(john), plays(john, guitar). kindaLikesMusic(ringo) :- sings(ringo); plays(ringo, drums).
| ?- reallyLikesMusic(john). true.
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Introduction to Prolog
beatle(john).
beatle(paul).
beatle(george).
beatle(ringo).
sings(john).
plays(john, guitar).
plays(ringo, drums). reallyLikesMusic(john) :- sings(john), plays(john, guitar). kindaLikesMusic(ringo) :- sings(ringo); plays(ringo, drums).
| ?- kindaLikesMusic(ringo). true.
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Introduction to Prolog
beatle(john).
beatle(paul).
beatle(george).
beatle(ringo).
sings(john).
plays(john, guitar).
plays(ringo, drums). reallyLikesMusic(john) :- sings(john), plays(john, guitar). kindaLikesMusic(ringo) :- sings(ringo). kindaLikesMusic(ringo) :- plays(ringo, drums).
| ?- kindaLikesMusic(ringo). true.
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| ?- sings(john). true.
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Introduction to Prolog
beatle(john).
beatle(paul). beatle(george). beatle(ringo). sings(john). sings(paul). sings(george). plays(john, guitar). plays(george, guitar). plays(paul, base). plays(ringo, drums).

beatle(john).
beatle(paul). beatle(george). beatle(ringo). sings(john). sings(paul). sings(george). plays(john, guitar). plays(george, guitar). plays(paul, base). plays(ringo, drums).
| ?- sings(X).
X = john ; X = paul ; X = george.
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Introduction to Prolog

beatle(john).
beatle(paul). beatle(george). beatle(ringo). sings(john). sings(paul). sings(george). plays(john, guitar). plays(george, guitar). plays(paul, base). plays(ringo, drums).
| ?- plays(X, Y).
X = john , Y = guitar ; …
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Introduction to Prolog

Graph Representation and Pathfinding
What is the Formal Representation of this Graph? a Graph is Formally Represented as a Tuple
(i.e., an Ordered Pair) of a Vertex Set and an Edge Set Copyright © 2018 by . All Rights Reserved.

Graph Representation and Pathfinding
vertex(1). vertex(2). vertex(3). vertex(4). vertex(5). vertex(6). edge(1,2). edge(2,4). edge(1,3). edge(3,5). edge(5,6). edge(3,6).
if you are Concerned only with Paths (i.e., Sequences of Edges), then the Prolog Facts for the Vertices are Unimportant
What is the Recursive Definition of a Path? as a Prolog Rule?
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Graph Representation and Pathfinding
edge(1,2).
edge(2,4).
edge(1,3).
edge(3,5).
edge(5,6).
edge(3,6).
path(X, Y) :- edge(X, Y).
path(X, Y) :- edge(X, Z), path(Z, Y).
How could we Adapt this for an Undirected Graph?
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Graph Representation and Pathfinding
edge(1,2).
edge(2,4).
edge(1,3).
edge(3,5).
edge(5,6).
edge(3,6).
path(X, Y) :- edge(X, Y).
path(X, Y) :- edge(X, Z), path(Z, Y). edge(X, Y) :- edge(Y, X).
Why would this Introduce a Problem? Copyright © 2018 by . All Rights Reserved.

Graph Representation and Pathfinding
edge(1,2).
edge(2,4).
edge(1,3).
edge(3,5).
edge(5,6).
edge(3,6).
path(X, Y) :- edge1(X, Y).
path(X, Y) :- edge1(X, Z), path(Z, Y). edge1(X, Y) :- edge(X, Y).
edge1(X, Y) :- edge(Y, X).
What happens with Graphs that contain Cycles? Copyright © 2018 by . All Rights Reserved.

Graph Representation and Pathfinding
2. p(X) :- q(X), r(X).
3. p(X) :- u(X).
4. q(X) :- s(X).
What is the Response to the Following Query? | ?- p(X).
X = a; X = a; X = b; X = d.
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Derivation Trees are Traversed Depth-First
this Entails that Alternate Choices are Attempted when the Search Returns to the Branch where the Alternative was Available
this is known as Backtracking Copyright © 2018 by . All Rights Reserved.
Derivation Trees

Unification and Matching
Unification Matches a Pair of Terms by Finding a Substitution of Variables (denoted S)
if S is Applied to Both Terms then the Results are Equal
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Unification and Matching there are Three Types of Term in Prolog
(e.g., robert, 31, etc.) Variables
(e.g., X, Y, VariableName, etc.) Complex Terms
(i.e.,functor (term1, term2, …, termn))
How does Prolog Match Terms? Copyright © 2018 by . All Rights Reserved.

Unification and Matching
Conditions for Match between T1 and T2
T1 and T2 Match If and Only If:
T1 and T2 are the Same Atom or Number
Nonvariable
T1 and T2 Match
T1 is then Instantiated to T2
T1 and T2 Match
T1 and T2 are now “Co-References”
T1 and T2 Match If and Only If:
T1 and T2 have the Same Functor Name T1 and T2 have the Same Functor Arity Corresponding Arguments Match Variable Instantiations are Compatible
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Unification and Matching Which of the following will Match?
reads(robert, scifi) eats(robert, What) book(1, herbert, dune) foo(X, a) teaches(robert, X) foo(X, Y) foo(bar, X)
reads(Who, What)
eats(Who, pizza) book(A, B, ringworld) foo(a, X) teaches(X, comp3007) foo(Z, Z)
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Unification and Matching Which of the following will Match?
reads(robert, scifi) eats(robert, What) book(1, herbert, dune) foo(X, a) teaches(robert, X) foo(X, Y) foo(bar, X)
match match
reads(Who, What)
eats(Who, pizza) book(A, B, ringworld) foo(a, X) teaches(X, comp3007) foo(Z, Z)
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