代写代考 COMP2420/COMP6420 INTRODUCTION TO DATA MANAGEMENT, ANALYSIS AND SECURITY

K NEAREST NEIGHBOURS
COMP2420/COMP6420 INTRODUCTION TO DATA MANAGEMENT, ANALYSIS AND SECURITY
WEEK 4 – LECTURE 2 (recorded)
of Computing

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College of Engineering and Computer Science
Credit: (previous course convenor)

Learning Outcomes
Recall what classification is
Explain various challenges in classification
Describe what K Nearest Neighbours(KNN) Classification is
04 Explain different distance metrics
05 Discuss the effect of the value of K
06 Discuss how to choose hyperparameters
Evaluate advantages and disadvantages of KNN
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CLASSIFICATION AND ITS CHALLENGES

Supervised Learning (recap)
• labeled data available
• Goal: Learn a function that maps input to
Given a training set of N example input-output pairs (𝑥!, 𝑦!), (𝑥”, 𝑦”),…(𝑥#, 𝑦#),
Where each 𝑦$was generated by an unknown function y=f(x),
discover a function h that approximates the true function f.
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Supervised Learning – Classification and Regression (recap)
Classification: when output y is one of a finite set of values [discrete categorical] (e.g. sunny, cloudy or rainy)
Regression: when output y is a real-valued number (e.g. average temperature, height)
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Classification
Classify an image

Semantic Gap

Challenges
Viewpoint variation

Challenges (contd…)
Illumination

Challenges (contd…)
Deformation

Challenges (contd…)

Challenges (contd…)
Background clutter

Challenges (contd…)
Interclass variation

Image Classifier
def classify_image(image): # Some logic/rules? return class_label
Unlike e.g. sorting a list of elements,
no obvious way to come up with algorithm to
classify an image as cat or any other class

Previous Attempts
Classical computer vision

Machine Learning Approach
def train(images, labels): # ML code
x=1 return model
def predict(model, images): # Use model to get
predictions
return test_labels

NEAREST NEIGHBOUR

What is a NN algorithm for classification?
What is this?
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Example Dataset
Attribution:CIFAR10

How to get nearest image? Distance Metric to compare images

Step by Step Algorithm

Further reading on Algorithm complexity

More formally
a training set 𝑇 = { 𝑋!,𝑌! |𝑖 = 1,2,…𝑛}
a distance (or similarity) metric 𝑑: 𝑋×𝑋 →
[0, ∞) and
a test value 𝑋” Find
𝑑 𝑋”,𝑋# = 𝑚𝑖𝑛{𝑑 𝑋”,𝑋! ,∀ 𝑋!,𝑌! ∈ 𝑇} Then, the predicted label for 𝑋” is 𝑌#

Load the training data as
𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒, 𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑒𝑙 ordered pairs 𝑥! , 𝑦!
For a given test value 𝑥”
Calculate 𝑑 𝑥”, 𝑥! for each ordered
pair 𝑥!,𝑦! in the training data
Find 𝑥# that has the minimum 𝑑 value
Return the associated 𝑦# as the predicted label

K-NEAREST NEIGHBORS

K-Nearest Neighbours concept
Instead of copying label from nearest neighbour, take majority vote from K closest points
Shade shows the color of the pixel in image w.r.t. given points. White corresponds to tie cases.

Different distances
Manhattan or taxicab distance
Definition: The distance between two points measured along axes at right angles. In a plane with p1 at (x1, y1)andp2 at(x2,y2),itis|x1 -x2|+ |y1 – y2|
https://xlinux.nist.gov/dads/HTML/manhattanDistance.html

Different distances
Euclidean or Pythagorean distance
Definition: The straight line distance between two points. In a plane with p1 at (x1, y1) and p2 at (x2, y2), it is √((x1 – x2)2 + (y1 – y2)2).
https://xlinux.nist.gov/dads/HTML/euclidndstnc.html

Minkowski distance
Generalized distance metric
𝑑𝑋,𝑌= A|𝑥!−𝑦!|’ !$%
𝑝 = 1, Manhattan distance 𝑝 = 2, Euclidean distance
𝑝 = ∞, Chebyshev Distance

Different distances (contd..)
http://vision.stanford.edu/teaching/cs231n-demos/knn/

Distance measures
Distance function properties
1. 𝑑 𝑎,𝑏 ≥0and𝑑 𝑎,𝑏 =0𝑖𝑓𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑓
𝑎=𝑏 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑎,𝑏
2. 𝑑 𝑎,𝑏 =𝑑 𝑏,𝑎 foranya,b
3. 𝑑 𝑎,𝑐 ≤𝑑 𝑎,𝑏 +𝑑 𝑏,𝑐 foranya,b,c
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangle_inequality
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Some other distance metrics
• Cosine distance
• Mahalanobis distance
• Chi square distance
• Euclidean distance is commonly used for kNN classification. However, other distance measures may perform better in certain contexts
Further reading Cosine distance Mahalanobis distance Chi square distance

More formally kNN classification
a training set 𝑇 = { 𝑋!,𝑌! |𝑖 = 1,2,…𝑛} distance metric 𝑑: 𝑋×𝑋 → [0, ∞)
𝐾 value and test value 𝑋”
𝑅={𝑋!,𝑌!|𝑑𝑋”,𝑋# ≤…≤𝑑𝑋”,𝑋$} let𝑅%=first𝐾 𝑋!,𝑌! pairsfrom𝑅
Then, the predicted label for 𝑋” is the mode of the 𝑌! values in 𝑅%

ordered pairs 𝑥!,𝑦!
Load the training data as 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒, 𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑒𝑙 For a given test value 𝑥”
Ø Calculate 𝑑 𝑥” , 𝑥! for each ordered pair 𝑥!,𝑦! in the training data
Ø Find the 𝐾 𝑥! , 𝑦! pairs with the lowest 𝑑 values
Ø Find the 𝑦# value that occurs the most in these 𝐾 values
Return that 𝑦# as the predicted label
What happens if there is a tie?

KNN – ties?
What approaches can you use to break a tie?
Ø break the tie randomly
Ø assign more weight to the nearest points
note: sklearn uses random tie breaking
But you can specify weight parameter in knn model to be distance to assign more weight to nearer of the nearest neighbours
https://scikit-learn.org/stable/modules/generated/sklearn.neighbors.KNeighborsClassifier.html
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HYPERPARAMETERS

Hyperparameters
• What is the best value of k to use?
• What is the best distance to use?
• These are hyperparameters: choices about the algorithm that we set rather than learn
• Very problem-dependent. Must try them all out and see what works best.
A hyperparameter is a parameter that is set before the learning process begins. These parameters are tunable and can directly affect how well a model trains.
https://deepai.org/machine-learning-glossary-and-terms/hyperparameter

Setting Hyperparameters

Idea #4: Cross-Validation: Split data into folds, try each fold as validation and average the results
Useful for small datasets, but not used frequently for larger datasets.

Example of 5-fold cross-validation for different values of k

• Eachpoint:singleoutcome
• Thelinegoesthroughthemean,barsindicatedstandard
• Appearsthatk~=7worksbestforthisdata
• (Heuristic)Oddvalueof𝑘normallychosenforbinary classification to avoid ties (odd k for even #classes, even k for odd #classes)

Elbow method
https://www.analyticsvidhya.com/blog/2018/03/introduction-k-neighbours-algorithm-clustering/ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bz6TtWbOoqE
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Effect of k (intuition)
• Lowk(lowbias,highvariance) • Highk(highbias,lowvariance)
Think about what happens if k = #total points in data set?
k is a smoothing parameter allowing us to achieve best trade-off between variance and bias of the model.
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Curse of Dimensionality

Dimension reduction is carried out for high-dimensional data, to avoid the effects of the curse of dimensionality. Techniques used include:
• Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
• Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA)
• Random Forest
• Independent Component Analysis (ICA)

KNN Advantages
• Simpletoimplement(doesnot require estimation)
• Adaptswelltonewtrainingdata • Easytointerprete
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KNN Disadvantages
• Slowtopredictduetomanydistance calculations
• Noinsightintodatagenerating process (the model is obtained by memorizing training data)
• Doesnotscalewell(increasing memory needed for larger datasets)
• Sensitivetonoiseandoutliers
• Accuracycanbreakdownwhenthere are many predictors (curse of dimensionality)
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Conclusion
KNN: Non-parametric lazy learning method
K-Nearest Neighbor predicts labels based on nearest training examples
Distance metric and K are hyperparameters
Use validation set to choose hyperparameters, run algorithm only once on test set
Not a desirable model for large datasets as prediction time is linear w.r.t. training points.

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